WEEK 2

BY: AQSA FAYYAZ

LEARNING LECTURER
(SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES)
LEARNING OUTCOMES

 Define learning
 Recognize and define three basic forms of
learning—classical conditioning, operant
conditioning, and observational learning
Learning

 Learning is the act of acquiring new or

modifying existing knowledge, behaviors,
skills, values, or preferences and may
involve synthesizing different types of
information.
 It is a relative permanent change in behavior
or mental state based on experience.
 Learning may occur consciously or
unconsciously.
 STIMULUS – it is a external and internal change which generate
the response of the body.
 Any event, any object that triggers a sensory or behavioral
response in an organism
 RESPONSE – reaction or response shown by the organism.
LEARNING

 Associative leaning
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning

 Observational Learning
11. Associative Learning

 Associative learning: is the process by which

an association between two stimuli is involved.
 Itinvolves the presence of paired stimuli in
order for change to occur.
 Learning about the relationship between two
separate stimuli.
(Classical Learning, Operant Learning)
Important terminology

 CONDITIONED – learned
 UNCONDITIONED -unlearned
 Classical Conditioning

Classical Conditioning – Pavlovian” or “Respondent Conditioning”.

 First described by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist.

 "Focuses on involuntary, automatic behaviors/responses”.

 Two stimuli are linked together to produce a new learned response in a

person or animal.

 This learning process creates a conditioned response through

associations between an Unconditioned stimulus (US) and a Neutral
stimulus (NS).
Pavlov’s Dog
Experiment:

 Phase 1: Before Conditioning

The first part of the classical conditioning process requires a naturally occurring
stimulus that will automatically elicit a response.
Presenting food (the UCS) naturally and automatically triggers a salivation
response (the UCR).
UCS----------------------UCR
 Phase 2: During Conditioning
During the second phase of the classical conditioning process, the previously
neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus. As a result
of this pairing, an association between the previously neutral stimulus(bell ring)
and the UCS (food) is formed.
Eventually, the neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus. (bell ring)
UCS+NS----------------------UCR
 Phase 3: After Conditioning
Once the association has been made between the UCS and the CS, presenting
the conditioned stimulus alone will come to evoke a response. i.e.: CR
(SALIVATION).
In the after-conditioning phase, the conditioned stimulus alone triggers the
conditioned response.
CS------------------CR
Stage 1: Before Conditioning
 The Unconditioned
Stimulus (UCS):
The unconditioned stimulus is
one that unconditionally,
naturally, and automatically
triggers a response.
 The Unconditioned
Response (UCR):
The unconditioned response is
the unlearned response that
occurs naturally in response to
the unconditioned stimulus.
 Stage 2 During Conditioning

 The Neutral Stimulus

Another stimulus which has no affect on a
person.
It could be a person, object, place etc.
The NS in classical conditioning does not
produce a response until it is paired with
the unconditioned stimulus.

 The Conditioned Stimulus

The conditioned stimulus is previously
neutral stimulus that, after becoming
associated with the unconditioned
stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a
conditioned response.
Stage 3 : After Conditioning

 The Conditioned
Response
The conditioned response is
the learned response to the
previously neutral stimulus.
11.Operant Conditioning -
Instrumental Conditioning
 First described by B. F. Skinner, an American
Psychologist
 Specific consequences are associated with a
voluntary behavior.
 It is a learning process in which behavior is
sensitive to or controlled by its consequences.
OR
 It is a type of learning in which behavior is
strengthened if followed by reinforcement or
diminished if followed by punishment.
 Involves applying reinforcement or punishment
after a behavior.
Skinner Box
 The "Skinner box" device was a
chamber that contained a bar or key
that an animal could press in order to
receive food, water, or some other form
of reinforcement.

 A Skinner box, also known as an

operant conditioning chamber, is a
device used to objectively record an
animal's behavior in a compressed time
frame.
An animal can be rewarded or punished
for engaging in certain behaviors, such as
lever pressing (for rats) or key pecking
(for pigeons).
Stimulus: Light bulb
Response/Behavior:
Peck on the key
Reward: food

“Pecking behavior is
being rewarded.

-Now the pigeon will

respond on the light
bulb to peck on the
key”

Pecking behavior is
strengthened.
COMPONENTS OF OPERANT
CONDITIONING
 Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the
likelihood of behavior it follows. (Positive Reinforcers, Negative
Reinforcers)
 In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases.
 Reinforcement is used to help increase the probability that a
specific behavior will occur in the future by delivering or
removing a stimulus immediately after a behavior.
 Another way to put it is that reinforcement, if done correctly,
results in a behavior occurring more frequently in the future.
 Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement

 Positive reinforcement presenting a  Negative reinforcers involve the

motivating/reinforcing stimulus to the person removal of an unfavorable events or
after the desired behavior is exhibited, outcomes after the display of a behavior.
making the behavior more likely to happen in In these situations, a response is
the future. In situations that reflect positive strengthened by the removal of
reinforcement, a response or behavior is
something considered unpleasant.
strengthened by the addition of something,
such as praise or a direct reward.
 For example: 1. A mother gives her son
 For Example: Bob does the dishes
praise (positive stimulus) for doing
(behavior) in order to stop his mother’s
homework (behavior).
nagging (aversive stimulus).
2. The little boy receives gifts (positive
stimulus) for every A he earns on his report  Doing away with homework for the weekend if
card (behavior). students behave well in class
 Punishment, is the presentation of an adverse event
or outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior it
follows. (Positive Punishment, Negative Punishment)
 In both of these cases of punishment, the behavior
decreases.
 Positive punishment Negative punishment
 Positive punishment sometimes  Negative punishment, also
referred to as punishment by
known as punishment by
application, involves the
presentation of an unfavorable
removal, occurs when an
event or outcome in order to favorable event or outcome is
weaken the response it follows. removed after a behavior occurs.
 For example: 1. An employee  For example: 1. Taking the
exhibits bad behavior at work and student's phone or tablet because
the boss criticizes him. The of improper use during the class
behavior will decrease because of  2. A third-grade boy yells at
the boss’s criticism.
another student during class, so
2. In an experiment, the subject his teacher takes away "good
received a slight electric shock when
behavior" tokens that can be
they got an answer wrong.
redeemed for prizes.
III. Observational Learning/Social
Learning theory
 Albert Bandura OC was a Canadian-American
Psychologist
 Observational learning is a process in which learning
occurs through observing and imitating others.
 Replicating others’ novel behavior through
observation and imitation; also known as vicarious
learning, modeling, or social learning.
 Social learning theory considers how both
environmental and cognitive factors interact to
influence human learning and behavior
 It is based on the principle of modifying or adopting
new behavior after observing another individual
performing it.
Cont.

 Individuals that are observed are called models.

 The observer will either perform or avoid the behavior based
on the consequence the model received after doing the
behavior.
 In society, children are surrounded by many influential
models, such as parents within the family, characters on
children’s TV, friends within their peer group and teachers at
school.
 For Example: Hennry learns not to jump on the coffee table,
because he watched his brother get into trouble for doing so
last week.
Bobo Doll Experiment (Albert Bandura,
1961)
A Albert

study of aggression
Bandura (1961) conducted a
controlled experiment study to investigate if social
behaviors (i.e., aggression) can be acquired by
observation and imitation
 Albert Bandura let a group of kindergarteners watch a
film of an adult violently attacking an inflatable plastic
toy shaped like Bobo the Clown, by hitting it, sitting on
it, hammering it, and so forth.
 He then let the children into a room with Bobo dolls.
 The children precisely imitated the adult’s behavior,
excitedly attacking Bobo doll.
 Their behavior was a type of observational learning
THE BOBO DOLL EXPERIEMENT BY
BANDURA
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eqNaLerMNOE

 Aggression is a learned behavior.

LIST OF REINFORCEMENTS (Examples)
 Praise and nonverbal communication (e.g., smile, nod, thumbs
up)
 social attention (e.g., a conversation, special time with the
teacher or a peer)
 tangibles such as stickers, new pencils or washable tattoos
 activities or privileges such as playing a game, sitting in a
special place in the class, drawing, writing, coloring, going to
recess or gym early, having extra computer time
 secondary positive reinforcements (such as checkmarks, tokens
or money) for students to accumulate in order to acquire
tangibles or be allowed to participate in special activities.
LIST OF PUNISHMENTS
(Examples )
 Yelling – scolding, name calling, demanding
 Withdrawing or Withholding – taking away privileges
which may or may not have anything to do with their
unacceptable behavior
 Grounding – not allowing them to do anything but
what is (according to the parents) necessary
 Isolation – giving them “time outs”, alone and away
from everyone else