RESEARCH DESIGN

-Dr Nivedita Roy

-School of Management
-NIT, ROURKELA
WHAT IS RESEARCH DESIGN ?
A Research Design is the arrangement of
conditions for collection and analysis of data, in a
manner that aims to combine relevance to the
research purpose with economy in procedure.
Research Design is the conceptual framework/
structure within which research is conducted.
It constitutes the blueprint for collection of data,
its measurement and analysis.
Important features of Research Design are :

It is a plan blueprint that specifies the sources &

types of information, relevant to the research
problem
It entails the strategy specifying which approach
shall be used for collecting & analysing data.
It also includes time & cost budgeting, since
these two are the constraints under which most
research studies operate.
PARTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN
The Sampling Design – Deals with method of
selecting items to be observed for given study
The Observational Design – deals with conditions
under which observations are made
The Statistical Design – deals with how many
items are to be observed and how data gathered
has to be analysed
The Operational Design – deals with techniques
by which sampling, observational & statistical
designs are carried out
NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN
 Research Design is needed because it facilitates the smooth
sailing of the various research operations, thereby making
research as efficient as possible, yielding maximum
information with minimum expenditure of effort, time &
money.

 Research design stands for advance planning of the methods

to be adopted for collecting the relevant data and the
techniques to be used in their analysis, keeping in view the
objectives of the research, and availability of staff, time &
money.

 Preparation of the Research Design should be done with

great care as any error in it might upset the entire project.
FEATURES OF A GOOD RESEARCH DESIGN
A good research design should be appropriate,
flexible, efficient and economical.
It considers the following :
- the means of obtaining information,
- the availability & skills of the researcher,
- the objective of the problem to be studied,
- the nature of the problem to be studied,
- the availability of time and money.

It is to be remembered that one single research design

cannot serve the purpose of all types of research
problems.
DEPENDANT & INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
Variable – an item which can take on different
quantitative values.
Continuous Variable – which can take on different
quantitative values even in decimal points
Discrete Variable – which can be expressed as
integral values, non-continuous
If one variable depends upon the other variable,
it is called Dependant Variable, and the other
variable upon which it depends is called
Independent Variable.
Extraneous Variable
Independent variables that are not related to the
purpose of the study, but may affect the Dependant
variable are called Extraneous Variables.

Effect that is noticed on Dependant variable as a

result of Extraneous variable(s), is known as
‘Experimental Error’.

A study must be designed such that the effect upon

the Dependant variable should be attributed entirely
to the Independent variable(s), and not to the
extraneous variable.
Control
A good research Design minimizes the effect
of Extraneous variable. The process of
minimizing the effect of Extraneous variables
is called Control.

In Experimental research, the term ‘Control’

is used to refer to restrain experimental
conditions.
Confounded Relationship
When the Dependent variable is NOT free
from the influence of extraneous variables,
the relationship between the Dependent and
Independent variables, is said to be
confounded by an extraneous variable.

Such confounded relationships should be

minimized in a good research design.
Research Hypothesis
When an assumption or a hypothesized
relationship is to be tested by scientific
methods, it is termed as Research
Hypothesis.
It is a predictive statement that relates an
independent variable(s) to a dependent
variable.
A Research Hypothesis must contain at least
one independent variable and one dependent
variable.
Hypothesis Testing Research
When the purpose of research is to test a
research hypothesis, it is termed ‘Hypothesis
Testing Research’.
It can be of two types :
- Experimental type : research in which the
independent variable is manipulated
- Non-experimental type : research in which
the independent variable is not manipulated.
Experimental & Control groups
In an Experimental hypothesis testing
research, when a group is exposed to ‘usual
conditions’ it is called ‘Control group’.
When a group is exposed to some ‘special
conditions’, it is called ‘Experimental group’.
Treatments

The different conditions (usual or special)

under which the Experimental & Control
groups are put, are known as ‘Treatment’.
Experiment
Experiment – The process of examining/establishing
the truth of a Hypothesis related to a Research
problem, is known as ‘Experiment’. Eg. Experiment to
establish the usefulness of a newly developed drug

Experiments are of two types – Absolute Experiment

& Comparative Experiment. (comparing between two
options, otherwise absolute).

Experimental Unit : the pre-determined blocks where

different treatments are used, are known as
‘Experimental Units’.
Research Design for Exploratory Studies
Main purpose of Exploratory studies is that of
formulating a problem for more precise
investigation or of developing the hypothesis
from an operational point of view.

The major emphasis in such studies is on the

discovery of ideas & insights.
Research Design for Exploratory Studies
The research design appropriate for such studies
must be flexible in nature to provide opportunity
for considering different aspects of a problem
under study.

There are three methods under this category :

- the survey of concerning literature
- the experience survey
- the analysis of insight stimulating examples.
 Research Design for Diagnostic Studies
The design in such type of studies should focus
on :
a) Formulating the objective of the study
b) Designing the methods of data collection
c) Selecting the sample
d) Collecting the data
e) Processing & analyzing the data
f) Reporting the findings
 Exploratory Diagnostic

Overall Design Flexible Design (design Rigid Design (design

must provide must make enough
opportunity for provisions for
considering different protection against bias
aspects of the problem) and must maximize
reliability)
Sampling design Non-probability Probability sampling
sampling design design (random
(purposive or sampling)
judgement sampling)
Statistical design No pre-planned design Pre-planned design for
for analysis analysis
Observational Unstructured Structured
design instruments for instruments for
collection of data collection of data
Operational No fixed decisions about Advanced decisions
design the operational about operational
procedures procedures
Research Design in case of Hypothesis-testing research

Hypothesis testing research studies

(Experimental studies) are those where the
researcher tests the hypothesis of causal
relationships between variables.

Such studies require procedures that will not

only reduce bias but also increase reliability, and
also permit drawing inferences about causality
between variables.
 Principles of Experimental designs
There are three principles of experimental
designs:

(1) the Principle of Replication;

(2) the Principle of Randomization; and
(3) the Principle of Local Control
 Principle of Replication
 According to the Principle of Replication, the experiment should be
repeated more than once, and the results should be similar.

 Thus, each treatment is applied in many experimental units instead of

one. By doing so the statistical accuracy of the experiments is increased.

For example, suppose we are to examine the effect of two varieties of rice. For this
purpose we may divide the field into two parts and grow one variety in one part and the
other variety in the other part. We can then compare the yield of the two parts and draw
conclusion on that basis.

But if we are to apply the principle of replication to this experiment, then we first divide
the field into several parts, grow one variety in half of these parts and the other variety
in the remaining parts. We can then collect the data of yield of the two varieties and
draw conclusion by comparing the same.

The result so obtained will be more reliable in comparison to the conclusion we

draw without applying the principle of replication. The entire experiment can even be
repeated several times for better results.
 Principle of Randomization
 The Principle of Randomization provides protection, when we conduct
an experiment, against the effect of extraneous factors by
randomization.

 Through the application of the principle of randomization, we can have a

better reduction of the experimental error.

 For instance, if we grow one variety of rice, say, in the first half of the parts
of a field and the other variety is grown in the other half, then it is just
possible that the soil fertility may be different in the first half in comparison
to the other half. If this is so, our results would not be realistic.

 In such a situation, we may assign the variety of rice to be grown in

different parts of the field on the basis of some random sampling
technique i.e., we may apply randomization principle and protect
ourselves against the effects of the extraneous factors (soil fertility
differences in the given case)
 Principle of Local Control
 The Principle of Local Control is another important principle
of experimental designs. Under it the extraneous factor, the
known source of variability, is made to vary deliberately
over as wide a range as necessary.

 We should plan the experiment in a manner that we can perform

a two-way analysis of variance, in which the total variability of
the data is divided into three components attributed to
treatments (varieties of rice in our case), the extraneous
factor (soil fertility in our case) and experimental error.

 Through the principle of local control we can eliminate the

variability due to extraneous factor(s) from the experimental
error.
 Important Experimental Designs
 (a) Informal experimental designs:
(i) Before-and-after without control design.
(ii) After-only with control design.
(iii) Before-and-after with control design.

 (b) Formal experimental designs:

(i) Completely randomized design (C.R. Design).
(ii) Randomized block design (R.B. Design).
(iii) Latin square design (L.S. Design).
(iv) Factorial designs.
 Informal Experimental Designs
 ‘Before-and-after without control’ design: In such a design, a
single test group or area is selected and the dependent variable is
measured before the introduction of the treatment. The treatment
is then introduced and the dependent variable is measured again
after the treatment has been introduced.

The effect of the treatment would be equal to the level of

the phenomenon after the treatment minus the level of the
phenomenon before the treatment.

The main difficulty of such a design is that with the passage of

time considerable extraneous variations may be there in its
treatment effect.
 Informal Experimental Designs
 ‘After-only with control’ design: In this design two groups or areas
(test area and control area) are selected and the treatment is introduced
into the test area only. The dependent variable is then measured in both
the areas at the same time.
 Treatment impact is assessed by subtracting the value of the
dependent variable in the control area from its value in the test
area.

 The basic assumption in such a design is that the two areas are identical
with respect to their behavior towards the phenomenon considered. If
this assumption is not true, there is the possibility of extraneous
variation entering into the treatment effect.
 However, data can be collected in such a design without the introduction
of problems with the passage of time.
 Informal Experimental Designs
 ‘Before-and-after with control’ design: In this design,
two areas are selected and the dependent variable is
measured in both the areas for an identical time-
period before the treatment.
 The treatment is then introduced into the test area only,
and the dependent variable is measured in both for an
identical time-period after the introduction of the
treatment.
 The treatment effect is determined by subtracting the
change in the dependent variable in the control area over
time from the change in the dependent variable in test
area over the same time.
 Formal experimental designs
- Completely randomized design :
 A completely randomized design (CRD) is one where the
treatments are assigned completely at random so that each
experimental unit has the same chance of receiving any
one treatment.

 Involves only two principles viz., the principle of replication

and the principle of randomization of experimental designs.

 It is the simplest possible design and its procedure of

analysis is also easier.
 Formal experimental designs
- Completely randomized design :
Design is entirely flexible in the sense that any nu
mber of treatments or replications may be used.

The number of replications for different treatments

need not
be equal and may vary from treatment to treatmen
t depending on the knowledge (if any) on the
variability of the
observations on individual treatments as well as o
n the
accuracy required for the estimate of individual tre
atment effect.
 Formal experimental designs
- Completely randomized design :
 Example:
 Suppose there are 4 treatments and 20 experimental units,
then
 the treatment 1 is replicated, say 3 times and is given to 3
experimental units,
 the treatment 2 is replicated, say 5 times and is given to 5
experimental units,
 the treatment 3 is replicated, say 6 times and is given to 6
experimental units and
 finally, the treatment 4 is replicated [20 ‐ (6 + 5 + 3) =]6
times and is given to the remaining 6 experimental units.
 Formal experimental designs
- Completely randomized design :
All the variability among the experimental units g
oes into experimented error.
CRD is used when the experimental material is h
omogene-ous.
CRD is often inefficient.
CRD is more useful when the experiments are co
nducted inside the lab.
CRD is well suited for the small number of treatm
ents and for
the homogeneous experimental material.
 Formal experimental designs
- Randomized block design :
 A randomized block design is an experimental design
where the experimental units are in groups called
blocks. The treatments are randomly allocated to the
experimental units inside each block. When all treatments
appear at least once in each block, we have a completely
randomized block design.

 In the R.B. design, the principle of local control can be

applied along with the other two principles of
experimental design.

 The variable selected for grouping the subjects is one that is

believed to be related to the measures to be obtained in
respect of the dependent variable.
 Formal experimental designs
- Randomized block design :
 The number of subjects in a given block would be
equal to the number of treatments and one subject in
each block would be randomly assigned to each treatment.

 In general, blocks are the levels at which we hold the

extraneous factor fixed, so that its contribution to the total
variability of data can be measured.

 The main feature of the R.B. design is that in this, each

treatment appears the same number of times in each
block.
 Formal experimental designs
- Randomized block design :
If a large number of treatments are to be
compared, then a large number of experimental
units are required.
This will increase the variation among the
responses and CRD may not be appropriate to
use.
In such a case when the experimental material is
not homogeneous and there are v treatments to
be compared, then it may be possible to group
the experimental material into blocks of sizes v
units.
 Formal experimental designs
- Randomized block design :
Blocks are constructed such that the
experimental units within a block are relatively
homogeneous and resemble to each other more
closely than the units in the different blocks.
If there are b such blocks, we say that the blocks
are at b levels.
Similarly, if there are v treatments, we say that
the treatments are at v levels.
The responses from the b levels of blocks and v
levels of treatments can be arranged in a two‐way
layout.
The RBD utilizes the principles of design ‐
randomization, replication and local control.

1. Randomization:
Number the v treatments 1,2,…,v.
Randomly allocate the v treatments to v
experimental units in each block.
2. Replication :
Since each treatment is appearing in each block,
so every treatment will appear in all the blocks.
So each treatment can be considered as if
replicated the number of times as the number of
blocks. Thus in RBD, the number of blocks and
the number of replications are same.
3. Local control :
Local control is adopted in RBD in the following
way: ‐
First form the homogeneous blocks of the
experimental units.
Then allocate each treatment randomly in each
block.
The error variance now will be smaller because of
homogeneous blocks and some variance will be
parted away from the error variance due to the
difference among the blocks.
 Formal experimental designs
- Latin Square design :
 It is an experimental design very frequently used in
agricultural research. The conditions under which
agricultural investigations are carried out are different
from those in other studies for nature plays an important
role in agriculture.

 The treatments in a L.S. design are so allocated among the

plots that no treatment occurs more than once in any
one row or any one column. The two blocking factors
may be represented through rows and columns (one
through rows and the other through columns).
 Formal experimental designs
- Latin Square design :
With the Latin Square design, you are able to
control variation in two directions.
Treatments are arranged in rows and columns
Each row contains every treatment.
Each column contains every treatment.
The most common sizes of LS are 5x5 to 8x8
Advantages of the LS Design :

1. You can control variation in two directions.

2. Hopefully you increase efficiency as
compared to the RCBD.
Disadvantages of the LS Design :
1. The number of treatments must equal the
number of replicates.
2. The experimental error is likely to increase
with the size of the square.
3. Small squares have very few degrees of
freedom for experimental error.
4. You can’t evaluate interactions between:
 a. Rows and columns
 b. Rows and treatments
 c. Columns and treatments.
 Formal experimental designs
- Factorial designs :
 Factorial designs are used in experiments where the
effects of varying more than one factor are to be
determined. They are specially important in several
economic and social phenomena where usually a large
number of factors affect a particular problem.

 In case of simple factorial designs, we consider the effects

of varying two factors on the dependent variable.

 In this design, the extraneous variable to be controlled by

homogeneity is called the control variable and the
independent variable, which is manipulated, is called the
experimental variable.
 Formal experimental designs
- Factorial designs :
Then there are two treatments of the
experimental variable and two levels of the
control variable. As such there are four cells into
which the sample is divided. Each of the four
combinations would provide one treatment or
experimental condition.

Subjects are assigned at random to each

treatment in the same manner as in a randomized
group design.
 Observation Methods

Observation is way of gathering data by

watching behavior, events, or noting physical
characteristics in their natural setting.

Observations can be overt (everyone knows they

are being observed) or covert (no one knows
they are being observed and the observer is
concealed).
 Observation Methods
Disguised versus Undisguised Observation

In disguised observation, the respondents are

unaware that they are being observed. Disguise
may be accomplished by using one-way mirrors,
hidden cameras, or inconspicuous mechanical
devices. Observers may be disguised as shoppers
or sales clerks.

In undisguised observation, the respondents

are aware that they are under observation.
 Observation Methods
Natural versus Contrived Observation

Natural observation involves observing

behavior as it takes place in the environment.
For example, one could observe the behavior of
respondents eating fast food in Burger King.

In contrived observation, respondents'

behavior is observed in an artificial environment,
such as a test kitchen.
 Types of Observation Methods

Observation Methods

Personal Mechanical Audit Content Trace

Observation Observation Analysis Analysis
Observation Methods - Personal Observation
A researcher observes actual behavior as it
occurs.
The observer does not attempt to manipulate
the phenomenon being observed but merely
records what takes place.
For example, a researcher might record
traffic counts and observe traffic flows in a
department store.
Observation Methods -Mechanical Observation
1) Do not require respondents' direct participation.
 On-site cameras (still, motion picture, or video)
 Optical scanners in supermarkets
 AC Nielsen audimeter - analyzing retail food and drug sales,
television show ratings, etc
 Turnstiles - is a form of gate which allows one person to pass at a
time. It records the number of people entering or leaving a
building.

2) Do require respondent involvement.

 Eye-tracking monitors
 Pupilometers
 Psycho-galvanometers - measures the mental conditions of a
person in observation
 Voice pitch analyzers
 Devices measuring Response latency - refers to the interval of time
between a request and response over a network
Observation Methods - Audit
The researcher collects data by examining
physical records or performing inventory
analysis.
Data are collected personally by the researcher.
The data are based upon counts, usually of
physical objects.
Retail and wholesale audits conducted by
marketing research suppliers.
Observation Methods - Content Analysis
 The objective, systematic, and quantitative description of
the manifest content of a communication.
 The unit of analysis may be words, characters (individuals
or objects), themes (propositions), space and time
measures (length or duration of the message), or topics
(subject of the message).
 Analytical categories for classifying the units are developed
and the communication is broken down according to
prescribed rules.
Observation Methods - Trace Analysis
Data collection is based on physical traces, or evidence, of past
behavior.

 The selective erosion of tiles in a museum indexed by the

replacement rate was used to determine the relative popularity of
exhibits.
 Internet visitors leave traces which can be analyzed to examine
browsing and usage behavior by using cookies.
 The number of different fingerprints on a page was used to gauge
the readership of various advertisements in a magazine.
 The age and condition of cars in a parking lot were used to assess
the affluence of customers.
 The position of the radio dials in cars brought in for service was
used to estimate share of listening audience of various radio
stations.
 The magazines people donated to charity were used to determine
people's favorite magazines.
 A Comparative Evaluation of Observation Methods
Criteria Personal Mechanical Audit Content Trace
Observation Observation Analysis Analysis Analysis

Degree of structure Low Low to high High High Medium

Degree of disguise Medium Low to high Low High High
Ability to observe High Low to high High Medium Low
in natural setting
Observation bias High Low Low Medium Medium
Analysis Bias High Low to Low Low Medium
Medium
General remarks Most Can be Expensive Limited to Method of
flexible intrusive commu- last resort
nications
 Advantages of Observation Methods
They permit measurement of actual behavior
rather than reports of intended or preferred
behavior.
There is no reporting bias, and potential bias
caused by the interviewer
The interviewing process is eliminated or
reduced.
Certain types of data can be collected only by
observation.
If the observed phenomenon occurs frequently
or is of short duration, observational methods
may be cheaper and faster than survey methods.
 Disadvantages of Observation Methods
It is difficult to determine reasons for the observed
behavior since little is known about the underlying
motives, beliefs, attitudes, and preferences.
Selective perception (bias in the researcher's perception)
can bias the data, eg. in Personal Observation.
Observational data are often time-consuming and
expensive, and it is difficult to observe certain forms of
behavior.
In some cases, the use of observational methods may
be unethical, as in observing people without their
knowledge or consent.

It is best to view observation as a complement to

survey methods, rather than as being in competition
with them.
 Investigators measure Researchers repeatedly examine the
outcomes and exposures of the same individuals to detect any changes
study subjects at the same time that might occur over a period of time
(market
researc
h
service
s)
Thank You