Entropy balance for Open

Systems
 Total   Total   Total   Change in the 
       
 Entropy    Entropy    Entropy   total entropy 
 In   Out   Generated   of the system 
       

Sin  Sout  S gen S system S 2  S1

Q
 T
 m s  m s  S
i i e e gen Scv

1- Heat transfer 2 –mass 3- Entropy

(in or out) generation
(in or out) 1
 For Steady state Systems

On a rate Qk    
basis, it  T   mi si   me se  S gen  S cv
becomes k


For steady sate Qk   

process,  Tk
 m s  m s  S
i i e e gen 0

For one stream steady sate process, 

Qk   
 Si  S e  S gen 0
 Tk
Qk   
 mi si  me se  S gen 0
Tk
qk
 si  se  s gen 0
Tk 2
 Entropy balance
 Total   Total   Total   Change in the 
       
 Entropy    Entropy    Entropy   total entropy 
 In   Out   Generated   of the system 
       
Transient
Q
 T   m i s i   me s e  S gen S 2  S 1 CV

Steady
Qk   
Flow
 Tk
 m s  m s  S
i i e e gen 0

Closed Q
System  T S gen S 2  S 1 3
 An isentropic process is defined as a
process during which the entropy
remains constant.
S 0 or
Qk
S 2  S1   S gen  S S (kJ/K) or
Tk 2 1

s2 s1 (kJ/kg.K)

It helps us in problem solving:

The assumption that a process is
isentropic, gives us a connection
between the inlet and outlet
conditions – just like assuming
constant volume, or constant
pressure 4
Example (6-5): Isentropic expansion of
steam in a turbine
Steam enters an adiabatic turbine at 5 MPa and 450oC
and leaves at a pressure of 1.4 MPa. Determine the work
output of the turbine per unit mass of steam flowing
through the turbine if the process is reversible and the
change in kinetic and potential energies are negligible.

5
Example(6-9): Entropy Change of an Ideal Gas
Air is compressed from an initial state of 100 kPa and
17oC to a final state of 600 kPa and 57oC. Determine the
entropy change of air during this compression process
by using (a) property values from the air table and (b)
average specific heats.
<Answers: a) -0.3844 kJ/kg.K, b) -0.3842 kJ/kg.K>
Solution:
 Remember, if this were
steam, we wouldn’t have
to worry about any of
these equations. We’d
just use the steam
tables!!
6
Example (6-11):
Isentropic Compression of an Ideal Gas
Helium gas is compressed in an adiabatic compressor
from an initial state of 14 psia and 50oF to a final state
temperature of 320oF in a reversible manner. Determine
the exit pressure of helium. <Answer: 40.5 psia>
Sol:

7
Example (6-18)
Steam at 7 MPa and 450 ºC is
throttled through a valve
to 3 MPa. Find the entropy
T1 = 450 ºC
generation through the
process. p1 = 7 MPa
This is a steady state problem.
0
qk
 si  se  s gen 0
Tk
p2 = 3 MPa

 s gen se  si s2  s1

8
Example (6-18) (continued)

T1 = 450 ºC h1 = 3287.1 kJ/kg

Table A-6
p1 = 7 MPa s1 = 6.6327 kJ/kg K
To fix state 2, this is a throttling process => h2 = h1

p2 = 3 MPa Table A-6 s2 = 6.9919 kJ/kg K

h2 = 3287.1 kJ/kg
sgen = Δs=s2-s1
= 6.9919 – 6.6327 = 0.3592 kJ/kg K
9
Isentropic Efficiencies of
Steady Flow Devices
 The irreversibilities inherently accompany all actual
processes downgrading the performance of devices.
 We want to quantify the degree of degradation of
energy in these devices.
 This is done by comparing our actual processes to
the isentropic process (ideal process)
 Isentropic efficiency is a
measure of the deviation
of actual processes from
the corresponding
idealized ones.
10
 Isentropic Efficiency of Turbines
Remember, if KE and PE are
ignored in the energy balance
equation, then the work is
w h1  h2
actual turbine work
Turbine 
isentropic turbine work

wa
Turbine 
ws

h1  h2 a
Turbine 
h1  h2 s 11
Example (6-14): Isentropic Efficiency of a Steam
Turbine

Steam enters an adiabatic turbine steadily at 3MPa and

400oC and leaves at 50 kPa and 100oC. If the power
output of the turbine is 2 MW, determine a) the isentropic
efficiency of the turbine and b) the mass flow rate of the
steam flowing through the turbine. <Answers: a) 66.6%,
b) 3.65 kg/s>
Sol:

12
Isentropic Efficiency of Compressors
Isentropic compressor work ws
isen ,comp  
Actual compressor work wa

Remember, if KE and PE are

ignored in the energy balance
equation, then the work is

w h2  h1
h2 s  h1
isen ,comp 
h2 a  h1
0.75 < isen,comp  0.85 for
Well-designed compressors. 13
Example (6-15):
Effect of Efficiency on Compressor Power Input
Air is compressed by an adiabatic compressor from 100
kPa and 12oC to pressure of 800 kPa at a steady rate of
0.2 kg/s. If the isentropic efficiency of the compressor is
80 percent, determine a) the exit temperature of air and
b) the required power input to the compressor.

14
Isentropic Efficiency of Pumps
 When the changes in kinetic and potential
energies of a liquid are negligible, the
isentropic efficiency of a pump defined
similarly as

ws  P2  P1 
isen , pump  
wa h2 a  h1
15
Isothermal Efficiency of
Compressors
A realistic model process for compressors
that are intentionally cooled during the
compression process is the reversible
isothermal process. We define an isothermal
efficiency as
wt
isoth ,comp 
wa
 Where wt and wa are the required work inputs
to the compressor for the reversible
isothermal and actual cases, respectively. 16
Isentropic Efficiency of Nozzles
 The objective of a nozzle is
to increase the kinetic
energy of the gas
A1 A2
 Usually, the inlet velocity is
low enough that we can
2
consider it to have zero
V
isen,nozz
kinetic energy
 2a
2
isen ,nozz 
Actual KE at nozzle exit V
2s
Isentropic KE at nozzle exit
17
 Isentropic Efficiency of Nozzles
Actual KE at nozzle exit V22a / 2
isen ,nozz   2
Isentropic KE at nozzle exit V2 s / 2

V 1a2 V 22a V 22a

h1  h2a   h1  h2a
2 2 2
V 1s2 V 22s V 22s
h1  h2s   h1  h2s
2 2 2

h1  h2a
isen ,nozz  V22a V 2
h1  h2s 2
2s

2
Isentropic efficiency of
nozzles are usually
greater than 90 %. 18
Example (6-16): Effect Efficiency on Nozzle Exit
Velocity

Air at 200 kPa and 950 K enters an adiabatic nozzle at

low velocity and is discharged at a pressure of 80 kPa. If
the isentropic efficiency of the nozzle is 92 percent,
determine a) the maximum possible exit velocity, b) the
exit temperature, and c) the actual velocity of the air.
Assume constant specific heats for air. <Answers: a) 666
m/s, b) 764 K, c) 639 m/s>
Sol:

19
 Reversible steady-flow work

 InChapter 3, Work Done

during a Process was
Work Done
found to be
during a
2
Wb  Pdv Process
1
 Itdepends on the path of
the process as well as the
properties at the end
states.
20
Work Done During a steady
state process
In a steady state process,
usually there are no
moving boundaries

 Itwould be useful to be able to express the

work done during a steady flow process, in
terms of system properties
 Recall that steady flow systems work best

when they have no irreversibilities

21
Consider general form of the Energy Balance for steady flow
steady state processes
 
  
Vi 2   
Ve2 

Q  W  mi hi   g zi  me he 
   g ze 
 2   2 
   
   
Q  W  mi hi  kei  Pei  m e he  kee  Pee 
per unit mass basis
(KJ/kg)
q  w h  ke  Pe

differential form

qrev  wrev dh  dke  dpe

22
 qrev  wrev dh  dke  dpe

qrev Tds

Tds dh  vdP

 wrev vdP  dke  dpe

2
wrev  vdP  ke  pe
1
23
For incompressible fluids, v is constant, hence

w rev  v P2  P1   ke  pe

If the device does not involves work like nozzles or pipes,
 
2 2
V V
0 vP2  P1  2
 g z 2  z1 
1
2

2 2
V1 V
vP1   g z1  vP2   gz2 2

2 2
Bernoulli’s equation 24
For devices dealing with compressible fluids, like
turbines and compressors, v is not constant, but the
KE and PE are negligible. Hence
2
wrev  vdP  ke  pe
1
2
wrev  vdP
1
In order to integrate, we need to know the relationship
between v and P.

25
 Reversible steady-flow work
Vs. Boundary work

2
w rev ,in vdP
1

2
Wb  Pdv
1

26
Important observation
Note that the work term is smallest when v is
small. So, for a pump (which uses work) you 2
want v to be small. For a turbine (which w rev vdP
produces work) you want v to be large. 1

Why a gas power plant delivers less net work per unit
mass of the working fluid than steam power plant?
A considerable portion of the work output of the
turbine is consumed by the compressor.
This is one of the reasons for the overwhelming
popularity of steam power plant in electric power
generation.
What will happen if we don’t condense the steam? 27
Proof that wrev,out  wact,out and wrev,in
 wact,in
qact  wact dh  dke  dpe (Actual) (1)
qrev  wrev dh  dke  dpe (Reversible) (2)
 wrev  wact Tds  qact
Work-producing devices
 wrev   wact   qact  such as turbines deliver
  ds   0 ,
T  T  more work, and work-
 qact consuming devices
since ds  Eq. 6-8 such as pumps and
T
compressors require
Thus, wrev wact , or less work when they
wrev wact for work output devices. operate reversibly.
w rev w act for work input devices . 28
Example (6-12): Compressing a Substance in the
Liquid vs. Gas Phase

Determine the compressor work input required to compress

steam isentropically from 100 kPa to 1 MPa, assuming that the
steam exists as (a) saturated liquid and (b) saturated vapor at the
inlet state. <Answers: a) 0.94 kJ/kg, b) 520 kJ/kg>

29
Minimizing the Compressor
Work
 Obviously one way of minimizing the
compressor work is to approach an isentropic
process.
 That is we minimize all irreversibilities (friction,
turbulence, non-quasi-equilibrium effects).
 But this is limited by economic considerations.
 The best way, is to keep the specific volume
as low as possible during the compression
process.
 By cooling it.

30
Effect of cooling the
compressor
 To understand how the cooling affects the work,
let us consider three processes:
 Isothermal process (maximum cooling)
 Isentropic process (No cooling)
 Polytropic process (some cooling)
 Assume also that all three processes
 Have the same inlet and exit pressures.
 Are internally reversible
 The gas behaves as an ideal gas
 Specific heats are constants.

31
 Isothermal process -1
2
wrev ,in vdP
1

Consider an RT
ideal gas, at v
constant T P
Remember, this is only
 P2 
wrev ,in RT ln  true for the isothermal
 P1 
case, for an ideal gas

32
Isentropic process -2
Isentropic means reversible and adiabatic
(Q=0) i.e. No cooling is allowed
Recall from isentropic relations for an ideal gas

k 
Pv C
1 1
v C k P k

2
Rearrange to find v, plug in and wrev ,in vdP
integrate 1

1  P 
 1
k 1  1
k 1 Now its “just” algebra,
 P
wrev ,in C 
k 2 1
 to rearrange into a more
 1  1
k  useful form
33
 P  1
k 1  1
k 1  k
wrev ,in C 
1  P 2 1 Pv C

k

 1  1
k  1 1
C kP k
v

1  1 1  1
C P k k
P2  C P k k
P1
wrev ,in  2 1
1  1k
v2 P2  v1 P1 RT2  T1  kRT2  T1 
wrev ,in   
1  1k 1  1k k1
kRT1  T2 T1 
wrev ,in   T  T
k  1 1 1 34
 kRT1  T2 T1 
wrev ,in   T  T
k  1 1 1

k  1
T2  P2  k

k  1
 
  T1  P1 
kRT1   P2  k
wrev ,in     1
k  1   P1  
 

Remember, this equation only applies to the

isentropic case, for an ideal gas, assuming constant
specific heats
35
Polytropic process -3
2
wrev ,in vdP
1
Back in Chapter 3 we said that in a
n polytropic process Pvn is a constant
Pv C
This is exactly the same as the isentropic case, but
with n instead of k!!
v2 P2  v1 P1 RT2  T1  nRT2  T1 
wrev ,in   
1  1n 1  1n n 1
n  1
 
nRT1   P2  n
wrev ,in     1
n  1   P1   36

 
 1- Isothermal process
Summary  P2 
wrev ,in RT ln 
 P1 
Isentropic process -2
k  1
 
kRT1   P2  k
wrev ,in     1
k  1   P1  
 

Polytropic process -3
n  1
 

nRT1  P2  n
wrev ,in     1
n  1   P1  
  37
Let us plot the three processes on a P-v Diagram
for the same final and initial pressures
The area to the left 2
wrev ,in vdP
of each line 1
represents the work,
vdP

Note, that it takes the

maximum work in
isentropic compression
while it takes minimum
work for an isothermal
compression
38
So as an engineer, you should
compress gas isothermally, in
order to consume minimum
work.

However, for a turbine, we

need to produce the
maximum work. So, a
turbine should expand
isentropically (diabatically
and reversibly). That is why
we assume Q = 0 in the 1st
low analysis of a turbine.

39
40
 Multistage
compression with
inter-cooling
 One common way is to use
cooling jackets around the
casing of the compressor.
 However, this is not sufficient
in some cases.
 Instead, multistage
compression is more
common, with cooling
between steps.
 The gas is compressed in
stages and cooled to the initial
temperature after each stage.
 This is done by passing it
through a heat exchanger
called “intercooler”.
 Multistage cooling is attractive
in high pressure ratio 41
compression.
Two stage Compressor
The colored area on the P- diagram represents the work
saved as a result of two-stage compression with inter-
cooling.

42
 Minimizing the work input for a
two stage Compressor
The size of the colored area
(the saved work input) on
previous slide varies with the
value of the intermediate
pressure Px.
The total work input for a two-
stage compressor is the sum of
the work inputs for each stage
of compression.
Wcomp ,in Wcomp I ,in  Wcomp II ,in
n  1/ n n  1/ n
nRT1   Px   nRT   P  
     1  1
  2   1
n  1   P1   n  1   Px   43
The only variable is Px .
The Px value that will
minimize the total work is
determined by
differentiating the above
expression with respect to
Px. And setting the result to
zero. P P
This gives
 x   2 
 P1   Px 
That is to minimize the compression work during two
stage compression, the pressure ratio a cross each stage
of the compressor must be the same.

wcomp I ,in wcomp II ,in 44

Example (6-13): Work Input for Various
Compression Processes
Air is compressed steadily by a irreversible compressor
from an inlet state of 100 kPa and 300 K to an exit
pressure of 900 kPa. Determine the compressor work per
unit mass for a) isentropic compression with k = 1.4, b)
polytropic compression with n = 1.3, c) isothermal
compression, and d) ideal two-stage compression with
intercooling with a polytropic exponent of 1.3.
<Answers: a) 263.2, b) 246.4, c) 189.2, d) 215.3 kJ/kg>
Sol:

45
Reducing the Cost of
Compressed Air
 Skim

 Repair Air Leaks

 Install High Efficiency Motors

 Use a small motor at high capacity, instead of

a large motor at low capacity

 Use outside air for compressor intake

 Reduce the air pressure setting

46