Quantum Computing

Power point presentation by:

Projecte HABYARIMANA
Rwanda Coding Academy
2024-2025
Motivation: Factorization
 An important problem in
computing is finding the prime
factorization of an integer.
 Using classical algorithms, a
number N of size n = log2(N) takes
n
2
super-polynomial time. time is
about the best we can get.
Motivation: Factorization
 For example, on a particular personal
computer, it may take four hours to
factor a number with 78 digits (n = 256).
 On the same computer, a 174 digit
number (n = 576, which is the record)
would take 43 days.
 A 617 digit number (n = 2048, current
size recommended for RSA encryption),
would take 300,000 years.
Motivation: Factorization
 Such superpolynomial growth is
characteristic of many algorithms in
classical computing.
 However: Quantum Computing could
provide a miraculous decrease in time.
 A quantum algorithm reduces the integer 3
n
factorization problem to polynomial time
( ).
 Then, if n = 256 number takes four hours,
n = 2048 will take 85 days.
Outline
 Review of Classical Computing
 Qubits and Quantum Operations
 Quantum Algorithms
 Physical Implementations
 Future Developments
Outline
 Review of Classical Computing
• Data Representation
• Operations
 Qubits and Quantum Operations
 Quantum Algorithms
 Physical Implementations
 Future Developments
Classical Data
Representation
 The basic unit in classical data is a
binary digit, called a bit, that can
take on the value 0 or 1.
 In classical computing, we represent
a datum by a string of bits.
 The letter ‘A’ may be written 0100
0001
 The number 137 can be written
1000 1001
Classical Operations
AND
 All operations in Input 1 Input B Output
0 0 0
classical computing 0 1 0
are based on logic 1
1
0
1
0
1
gates. OR
Input 1 Input B Output
 For example, the 0 0 0
logical AND gate 0
1
1
0
1
1
takes in two bits 1 1 1

and returns 1 if and

only if both inputs
are 1.
Classical Algorithm
 We define a Classical Algorithm to
be any sequence of such classical
operations (usually to do
something useful).
 A classical computer is any device
that can implement a classical
algorithm.
Classical Computing
 Although modern classical
computers depend on quantum
mechanics, the algorithms that
they implement do not.
 We could, in principle, design a
classical computer that does not
depend on quantum mechanics.
Lego Computing
 For example, one could build a
computer out of Legos.
Outline
 Review of Classical Computing
 Qubits and Quantum Operations
• Qubits as Two-State Systems
• Quantum Gates
• Quantum Registers
• Entanglement
 Quantum Algorithms
 Physical Implementations
 Future Developments
Qubits
 A Quantum Bit
(Qubit) is a two-
level quantum |1>
system.
 We can label the
states |0> and |1>.
 In principle, this |0>
could be any two-
level system.
Qubits
 Unlike a classical bit, which is
definitely in either state, the state
of a Qubit is in general a mix of |0>
and |1>.
 c0 0  c1 1

2 2
 c0 a cnormalized
We assume 1 1 state:
Qubits
 For convenience, we will use the
matrix representation

 1  0
0   1  
 0  1
Quantum Gate
 A Quantum Logic Gate is an
operation that we perform on one
or more Qubits that yields another
set of Qubits.
 We can represent them as linear
operators in the Hilbert space of
the system.
Quantum NOT Gate
 As in classical computing, the NOT
gate returns a 0 if the input is 1
and a 1 if the input is 0.
 The matrix representation is
 0 1
 
 1 0
Other Quantum Gates
 Other gates include the Hadamard-
Walsh matrix:
1 1 1 
 
2  1  1

 And Phase Flip operation:

1 0 
 
i 
0 e 
Multiple Qubits
 Any useful classical computer has more
than one bit. Likewise, a Quantum
Computer will probably consist of
multiple qubits.
 A system of n Qubits is called a
Quantum Register of length n.
 To represent that Qubit 1 has value b1,
Qubit 2 has value b2, etc., we will use
the notation: b1 1 b2 2  bn n
Multiple Qubits
 For n Qubits, the vector
representing the state is a 2n
column vector.
 The operations are then 2n x 2n
matrices.
 For n = 1  2, we use

0
  the  0
 
 0
 
 0  1  0  0
representations
0 1 0 2   0 1 1 2   1 1 0 2   1 1 1 2  
0 0 1 0
       
 0  0  0  1
       
Quantum CNOT Gate
 An important Quantum Gate for n
= 2 is the conditional not gate.
 The conditional not gate flips the
second bit if and only if the first bit
is on.
1 0 0 0
  Input
Qubit 1 Qubit 2
Output
Qubit 1 Qubit 2
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
  1 1 1 0
0 0 1 0 

Reversibility and No-
Cloning
 In Quantum Computing, we use
unitary operations (U*U = 1).
 This ensures that all of the
operations that we perform are
reversible.
 This fact is important, because
there is no way to perfectly copy a
state in Quantum Computing (No-
Cloning Theorem).
No-Cloning Theorem
 That is, the No-Cloning Theorem
says that there is no linear
operation that copy an arbitrary
state to one of the basis states:
 ei   
 We can get around this if we are
only interested in copying basis
vectors, though.
Entanglement
 In Quantum Mechanics, it sometimes
occurs that a measurement of one
particle will effect the state of
another particle, even though
classically there is no direct
interaction. (This is a controversial
interpretation).
 When this happens, the state of the
two particles is said to be entangled.
Entanglement: Formalism
 More formally, a two-particle state
is entangled if it cannot be written
as a product of two one-particle
states.   12  0 0  1 1  1 2 1 2

 If a state is not entangled, it is

1
decomposable.
 
2
 0 0 1 0  0 1 1 1 
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2

1 1
 0 1 11  
0 21 2

2 2
Entanglement: Example
 The state of two spinors is prepared
such that the z-component of the spin is
zero.
 If we measure m = +1/2 for one
particle, then the other particle must
have m =-1/2.
 The measurement performed on one
particle resulted in the collapse of the
wavefunction of the other particle.
Outline
 Review of Classical Computing
 Qubits and Quantum Operations
 Quantum Algorithms
• Definitions
• Universal Gate Sets
• Example: Quantum Teleportation
 Physical Implementations
 Future Developments
Definitions
 A Quantum Algorithm is any
algorithm that requires Quantum
Mechanics to implement.
 A Quantum Computer is any
device that can implement a
Quantum Algorithm.
Universal Gate Sets
 It would be convenient if there was a
small set of operations from which all
other operations could be produced.
 That is, a set of operators {U1,…,Un}
such that any other operator W could be
written W = UiUj…Uk.
 Such a set of operators in the context of
computation is called a universal gate
set.
Classical NAND Gate
 One universal set for Classical
Computation consists of only the
NAND gate which returns 0 only if
the two inputs are 1.
NAND
Input 1 Input B Output
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
NOT ( P )  NAND ( P, P ) 1 1 0

AND ( P, Q)  NAND ( NAND ( P, Q), NAND ( P, Q))

OR( P, Q)  NAND ( NAND ( P, P ), NAND (Q, Q))
Quantum Universal Gate
Set
 There are a few universal sets in
Quantum Computing.
 Two convenient sets:
• CNOT and single Qubit Gates
• CNOT, Hadamard-Walsh, and Phase Flips
 Having such a set could greatly
simplify implementation and
design of Quantum Algorithms.
Quantum Teleportation
 Suppose two parties, Alice and Bob.
 Alice is in possession of a state, but
does not know anything about it.
 a 0  b 1
 Alice desires to send this state to
Bob, but cannot do so directly (no
Quantum Channel). They can
exchange classical data (there is a
Classical Channel).
Quantum Teleportation
 Alice cannot observe this state to
give the information about it to Bob,
since observing it destroys the state.
 Nor could she, even if given an
infinite number of states, reconstruct
the state from probability
measurements since phase
information is lost.
Quantum Teleportation

 Alice cannot give the state to Bob

by classical means.
 She can, however, communicate
the state if Alice and Bob share a
register of length 2 that is
prepared in an entangled state.
Alice and Bob each have access to
one Qubit.1 1
  0 A
0 B
 1 A1 B
2 2
Quantum Teleportation
 The full-state then is the product of
Alice’s Qubit and the shared register:
a a b b
   000  011  100  101
2 2 2 2
 The notation is such that the left-most
Qubit is Alice’s mystery Qubit, the
middle one is Alice’s half of register,
and the rightmost is Bob’s half of the
register.
 Quantum Teleportation
Classical Channel
Alice
Bob
Copied State

Initial State

Entangled Source
Quantum Teleportation
 Alice then performs a CNOT
operation on her half of the
register, using her mystery bit as
the control.
a a b b
000  011  110  101
2 2 2 2
Quantum Teleportation
 She then applies the Hadamard-
Walsh matrix to the state. The
result can be written
1 1
00 a 0  b 1  01 a 1  b 0 
2 2
1 1
 10 a 0  b 1  01 a 1  b 0 
2 2
where the lone Qubit is Bob’s half
of the register.
Quantum Teleportation
 Alice then observes her two
Qubits. Note that this destroys her
original state.
 The outcome of this observation is
totally unpredictable.
 After observing her bits, Bob
knows what his bit must be,
because of the entanglement of
the states.
Quantum Teleportation
 If Alice Observes 00, then Bob has
the original state. Otherwise, Bob
has some other linear combination
of Qubits.
 The linear combination is known,
so Bob can perform a specific
operation
1
to retrieve
1
the original
state. 00 a 0  b 1  01 a 1  b 0 
2 2
1 1
 10 a 0  b 1  01 a 1  b 0 
2 2
Quantum Teleportation
 This procedure was fundamentally
quantum mechanical. It relied on
superposition and, especially,
entanglement of states.
 It was necessary to account for the
probabilistic nature of Quantum
Mechanics by giving Alice and Bob
particular actions to take, depending on
the (unpredictable) outcome of the
observation.
Quantum Teleportation
 This experiment has been
performed.
 Bouwmeester, et al. in 1997.
 Boschi, et al. in 1998.
 Both experiments involved the
transportation of a state of
polarization.
Outline
 Review of Classical Computing
 Qubits and Quantum Operations
 Quantum Algorithms
 Physical Implementations
• Requirements
• NMR Implementation
 Future Developments
Physical Implementation
 Any physical implementation of a
quantum computer must have the
following properties to be
practical(DiVincenzo)
• The number of Qubits can be increased
• Qubits can be arbitrarily initialized
• A Universal Gate Set must exist
• Qubits can be easily read
• Decoherence time is relatively small
Decoherence
 As the number of Qubits increases,
the influence of external
environment perturbs the system.
 This causes the states in the
computer to change in a way that
is completely unintended and is
unpredictable, rendering the
computer useless.
 This is called decoherence.
Shor’s Algorithm
 A Quantum Algorithm, due to P. W.
Shor (1994) allows for very fast
factoring of numbers.
 The algorithm uses other
algorithms: the Quantum Fourier
Transform, and Euclid’s Algorithm.
 It also relies on elements of group
theory.
Shor’s Algorithm
 Because of the unpredictability of Quantum
Mechanics, it only gives the correct answer
to within a certain probability.
 Multiple runs can be performed to increase
the probability that the answer is correct.
This increases the complexity to3
n log 2 n 
 A Quantum Computer with 7 Qubits was
developed in 2001 to implement Shor’s
algorithm to factor 15.
NMR Implementation
 Vandersypen, et al.
used an NMR computer |1>2
to implement Shor’s
algorithm.
|1>1
 We can consider two
different Qubits as two
different nuclei in the
magnetic field,
oriented in slightly
|0>1 |0>2
different directions, so
that the energy
splitting is different
between them.
NMR Implementation
 Since the energy splittings are
different, we can control each
Qubit independently by using
different frequencies of radiation.
 The two Qubits will also interact
slightly due to their spins. This
allows for the implementation of a
CNOT gate.
Other Implementations
 There are other possible ways to
produce quantum computers:
• Quantum dots
• Superconductors
• Lasers acting on ion traps
• Molecular magnetic computers
Outline
 Review of Classical Computing
 Qubits and Quantum Operations
 Quantum Algorithms
 Physical Implementations
 Future Developments
Future Prospects
 Currently, research in Quantum
Computing is more based on proof-
of-principle rather than research
into practical applications.
 The infancy of the science is a
significant inhibitor. In the future,
decoherence may be a serious
issue.
Future Prospects
 Although many Quantum Algorithms seem
to threaten classical computing (such as
RSA-encryption), Classical Computers will
be significantly larger than Quantum
Computers for the foreseeable future.
 Kurzweil, for example, suggests that
practical quantum computing will be
achieved at approximately the same time
humanity achieves immortality (before
2099).
Concluding Remarks
 Quantum Computing could provide a radical
change in the way computation is performed.
 The unit of information in Quantum
Computing is the Qubit, which is a two state-
system. Basic operations are unitary
operators on the Hilbert space of this system.
 The advantages of Quantum Computing lie in
the aspects of Quantum Mechanics that are
peculiar to it, most notably entanglement.
 Practical Quantum Computers are a
significant ways off.
References
General
Hirvensalo, M. (2004) Quantum Computing. Springer-Verlag [Good introduction to the material.
Much of the material in the presentation in elaborated this text.]
Lo, H., Popescue, S., and Spiller, T., eds. (1998) Introduction to Quantum Computation and
Information. World Scientific.

Shor’s Algorithm
Shor, P. (1994) Algorithms for Quantum Computation: Discrete Logarithms and Factoring.
Proceedings of the 35th Annual IEEE Symposium on Foundations of Computer Science, Santa
Fe, NM, Nov. 20-22, 1994. (Available electronically at quant-ph/9508027) [Shor’s original
paper describing the quantum algorithm used to factor integers].

Physical Implementation
Boschi, D., et al. (1998). Experimental Realization of Teleporting of an Unknown Pure Quantum
State via Dual Classical and Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen channels. Phys. Rev. Lett., 80, 1121-
1125.
Bouwmeester, D., et al. (1997). Experimental Quantum Teleportation. Nature, 390, 575-579.
DiVincenzo, D. (2000) The Physical Implementation of Quantum Computation. (Prepared for
Fortschritte der Physik special issue, Experimental Proposals for Quantum Computation, eds.
H.-K. Lo and S. Braunstein. Available electronically at quant-ph/0002077)
Vandersypen, L. M. K., et al. (2001) Experimental Realization of Shor’s Quantum Factoring
Algorithm Using Nuclear Magnetic Resonance. Nature, 414, 883-887.
References
Lego Logic Gates
The Goldfish Online, “LEGO Logic Gates” <http://goldfish.ikaruga.co.uk/logic.html>. Accessed
April 18, 2005.

Other
Foot, C. J. (2005). Atomic Physics. Oxford University Press (Paperback). [Provides a brief
perspective on Quantum Computing that is relevant to a student of atomic physics]
Kurzweil, Ray. (2000). The Age of Spiritual Machines: When Computers Exceed Human
Intelligence. Penguin Books (Paperback) [Very little about Quantum Computing per se, but
provides an interesting comparison of the future prospects of the field in comparison to other
forms of computing].