UNIT –V

Multiple Access techniques: Introduction to

Multiple Access, FDMA, TDMA, CDMA, SDMA,
Packet Radio, CSMA.

Multiple Antenna Techniques: MIMO systems –

spatial multiplexing -System model -Pre-coding -
Beam forming - transmitter diversity, receiver
diversity- Channel state information-capacity in
fading and non-fading channels.
Multiple Access Techniques for
Wireless Communication

FDMA
TDMA
SDMA
PDMA
Multiple Access Techniques
Frequency division duplexing (FDD)
• two bands of frequencies for every user
• forward band
• reverse band
• duplexer needed
• frequency seperation between forward band
and reverse band is constant
reverse channel forward channel
frequency seperation f
 Time division duplexing (TDD)

• uses time for forward and reverse link

• multiple users share a single radio channel
• forward time slot
• reverse time slot
• no duplexer is required

reverse channel forward channel

t
time seperation
Multiple Access Techniques

• Frequency division multiple access (FDMA)

• Time division multiple access (TDMA)
• Code division multiple access (CDMA)
• Space division multiple access (SDMA)
• grouped as:
• narrowband systems
• wideband systems
 Narrowband systems
• large number of narrowband channels
• usually FDD
• Narrowband FDMA
• Narrowband TDMA
• FDMA/FDD
• FDMA/TDD
• TDMA/FDD
• TDMA/TDD
Logical separation FDMA/FDD

forward channel
user 1
reverse channel

... f

forward channel
user n
reverse channel

t
Logical separation FDMA/TDD

user 1
forward channel reverse channel

... f
user n
forward channel reverse channel

t
Logical separation TDMA/FDD

forward forward
channel channel
user 1 ... user n f
reverse reverse

channel channel

t
Logical separation TDMA/TDD

user 1 user n

... f
forward reverse forward reverse
channel channel channel channel

t
Wideband systems
• large number of transmitters on one channel
• TDMA techniques
• CDMA techniques
• FDD or TDD multiplexing techniques
• TDMA/FDD
• TDMA/TDD
• CDMA/FDD
• CDMA/TDD
Logical separation CDMA/FDD

user 1
forward channel reverse channel

... code
user n
forward channel reverse channel

f
Logical separation CDMA/TDD

user 1
forward channel reverse channel

... code
user n
forward channel reverse channel

t
Multiple Access Techniques in use

Multiple Access
Cellular System
Technique
Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) FDMA/FDD
Global System for Mobile (GSM) TDMA/FDD
US Digital Cellular (USDC) TDMA/FDD
Digital European Cordless Telephone (DECT) FDMA/TDD
US Narrowband Spread Spectrum (IS-95) CDMA/FDD
Frequency division multiple access FDMA

• one phone circuit per channel

• idle time causes wasting of resources
• simultaneously and continuously
transmitting
• usually implemented in narrowband systems
• for example: in AMPS is a FDMA
bandwidth of 30 kHz implemented
 FDMA compared to TDMA

• fewer bits for synchronization

• fewer bits for framing
• higher cell site system costs
• higher costs for duplexer used in base
station and subscriber units
• FDMA requires RF filtering to minimize
adjacent channel interference
Nonlinear Effects in FDMA

• many channels - same antenna

• for maximum power efficiency operate near
saturation
• near saturation power amplifiers are
nonlinear
• nonlinearities causes signal spreading
• intermodulation frequencies
Nonlinear Effects in FDMA

• IM are undesired harmonics

• interference with other channels in the
FDMA system
• decreases user C/I - decreases performance
• interference outside the mobile radio band:
adjacent-channel interference
• RF filters needed - higher costs
 Number of channels in a FDMA system

Bt - Bguard
N=
Bc

• N … number of channels
• Bt … total spectrum allocation
• Bguard … guard band
• Bc … channel bandwidth
 Example: Advanced Mobile Phone System

• AMPS
• FDMA/FDD
• analog cellular system
• 12.5 MHz per simplex band - Bt
• Bguard = 10 kHz ; Bc = 30 kHz

12.5E6 - 2*(10E3)
N= = 416 channels
30E3
 Time Division Multiple Access

• time slots
• one user per slot
• buffer and burst method
• noncontinuous transmission
• digital data
• digital modulation
Repeating Frame Structure
One TDMA Frame
Preamble Information Message Trail Bits

Slot 1 Slot 2 Slot 3 … Slot N

Trail Bits Sync. Bits Information Data Guard Bits

The frame is cyclically repeated over time.

 Features of TDMA
• a single carrier frequency for several users
• transmission in bursts
• low battery consumption
• handoff process much simpler
• FDD : switch instead of duplexer
• very high transmission rate
• high synchronization overhead
• guard slots necessary
 Number of channels in a TDMA system

m*(Btot - 2*Bguard)
N=
Bc
• N … number of channels
• m … number of TDMA users per radio channel
• Btot … total spectrum allocation
• Bguard … Guard Band
• Bc … channel bandwidth
Example: Global System for Mobile (GSM)

• TDMA/FDD
• forward link at Btot = 25 MHz
• radio channels of Bc = 200 kHz
• if m = 8 speech channels supported, and
• if no guard band is assumed :

N= 8*25E = 1000 simultaneous users

6200E3
Efficiency of TDMA

• percentage of transmitted data that contain

information
• frame efficiency f
• usually end user efficiency < f ,
• because of source and channel coding
• How get f ?
Repeating Frame Structure
One TDMA Frame
Preamble Information Message Trail Bits

Slot 1 Slot 2 Slot 3 … Slot N

Trail Bits Sync. Bits Information Data Guard Bits

The frame is cyclically repeated over time.

Efficiency of TDMA

bOH = Nr*br + Nt*bp + Nt*bg + Nr*bg

• bOH … number of overhead bits
• Nr … number of reference bursts per frame
• br … reference bits per reference burst
• Nt … number of traffic bursts per frame
• bp … overhead bits per preamble in each slot
• bg … equivalent bits in each guard time
intervall
Efficiency of TDMA

bT = T f * R

• bT … total number of bits per frame

• Tf … frame duration
• R … channel bit rate
Efficiency of TDMA

f = (1-bOH/bT)*100%

 f … frame efficiency
• bOH … number of overhead bits per frame
• bT … total number of bits per frame
Space Division Multiple Access

• Controls radiated energy for each user in space

• using spot beam antennas
• base station tracks user when moving
• cover areas with same frequency:
• TDMA or CDMA systems
• cover areas with same frequency:
• FDMA systems
Space Division Multiple Access

• primitive applications are

“Sectorized antennas”

• in future adaptive antennas

simultaneously steer energy in
the direction of many users at once
Reverse link problems

• general problem
• different propagation path from user to base
• dynamic control of transmitting power from
each user to the base station required
• limits by battery consumption of subscriber
units
• possible solution is a filter for each user
Solution by SDMA systems

• adaptive antennas promise to mitigate reverse

link problems
• limiting case of infinitesimal beamwidth
• limiting case of infinitely fast track ability
• thereby unique channel that is free from
interference
• all user communicate at same time using the
same channel
Disadvantage of SDMA

• perfect adaptive antenna system:

infinitely large antenna needed
• compromise needed
SDMA and PDMA in satellites

• INTELSAT IVA
• SDMA dual-beam
receive antenna
• simultaneously access
from two different
regions of the earth
SDMA and PDMA in satellites

• COMSTAR 1
• PDMA
• separate antennas
• simultaneously
access from same
region
SDMA and PDMA in satellites

• INTELSAT V
• PDMA and SDMA
• two hemispheric
coverages by SDMA
• two smaller beam zones
by PDMA
• orthogonal polarization
Capacity of Cellular Systems

• channel capacity: maximum number of users

in a fixed frequency band
• radio capacity : value for spectrum efficiency
• reverse channel interference
• forward channel interference
• How determine the radio capacity?
Co-Channel Reuse Ratio Q

Q=D/R

• Q … co-channel reuse ratio

• D … distance between two co-channel cells
• R … cell radius
Forward channel interference

• cluster size of 4
• D0 … distance
serving station
to user
• DK … distance
co-channel base
station to user
Carrier-to-interference ratio C/I
• M closest co-channels cells cause first order
interference

-n0
C D0
= M -nk
I D K
k=1

• n0 … path loss exponent in the desired cell

• nk … path loss exponent to the interfering base station
Carrier-to-interference ratio C/I

• Assumption:
• just the 6 closest stations interfere
• all these stations have the same distance D
• all have similar path loss exponents to n 0

-n
C D0
= -n
I 6*D
Worst Case Performance

• maximum interference at D0 = R
• (C/I)min for acceptable signal quality
• following equation must hold:

-n
1/6 * (R/D) >
= (C/I)min
Co-Channel reuse ratio Q

1/n
Q = D/R = (6*(C/I)min)

• D … distance of the 6 closest interfering

base stations
• R … cell radius
• (C/I)min … minimum carrier-to-interference
ratio
• n … path loss exponent
Radio Capacity m

Bt
m= radio channels/cell
Bc * N

• Bt … total allocated spectrum for the system

• Bc … channel bandwidth
• N … number of cells in a complete frequency
reuse cluster
Radio Capacity m
• N is related to the co-channel factor Q by:

1/2
Q = (3*N)

Bt Bt
m= = 6 C 2/n
Bc * (Q²/3) Bc *( n/2 *( I )min )
3
Radio Capacity m for n = 4

Bt
m=
Bc * 2/3 * (C/I)min

• m … number of radio channels per cell

• (C/I)min lower in digital systems compared to
analog systems
• lower (C/I)min imply more capacity
• exact values in real world conditions measured
Compare different Systems

• each digital wireless standard has different

(C/I)min
• to compare them an equivalent (C/I) needed
• keep total spectrum allocation Bt and
number of rario channels per cell m
constant to get (C/I)eq :
Compare different Systems

C C ( Bc
( ) =( ) * )²
I eq I min Bc’

• Bc … bandwidth of a particular system

• (C/I)min … tolerable value for the same system
• Bc’ … channel bandwidth for a different
system
• (C/I)eq … minimum C/I value for the different
system
C/I in digital cellular systems

C Eb*Rb Ec*Rc
= =
I I I

• Rb … channel bit rate

• Eb … energy per bit
• Rc … rate of the channel code
• Ec … energy per code symbol
C/I in digital cellular systems

• combine last two equations:

(C/I) (Ec*Rc)/I B c’
= =( )²
(C/I)eq (Ec’*Rc’)/I’ Bc

• The sign ‘ marks compared system parameters

C/I in digital cellular systems

• Relationship between Rc and Bc is always

linear (Rc/Rc’ = Bc/Bc’ )
• assume that level I is the same for two
different systems ( I’ = I ) :

Ec = ( Bc’ )³
Ec ‘ Bc
Compare C/I between FDMA and TDMA

• Assume that multichannel FDMA system

occupies same spectrum as a TDMA system
• FDMA : C = Eb * Rb ; I = I0 * Bc
• TDMA : C’ = Eb * Rb’ ; I’ = I0 * Bc’
• Eb … Energy per bit
• I0 … interference power per Hertz
• Rb … channel bit rate
• Bc … channel bandwidth
Example

• A FDMA system has 3 channels , each with

a bandwidth of 10kHz and a transmission
rate of 10 kbps.
• A TDMA system has 3 time slots, a channel
bandwidth of 30kHz and a transmission rate
of 30 kbps.
• What’s the received carrier-to-interference
ratio for a user ?
Example

• In TDMA system C’/I’ be measured in

333.3 ms per second - one time slot

C’ = Eb*Rb’ = 1/3*(Eb*10E4 bits) = 3*Rb*Eb=3*C

I’ = I0*Bc’ = I0*30kHz = 3*I

• In this example FDMA and TDMA have

the same radio capacity (C/I leads to m)
Example

• Peak power of TDMA is 10logk higher then

in FDMA ( k … time slots)
• in practice TDMA have a 3-6 times better
capacity
Capacity of SDMA systems

• one beam each user

• base station tracks each user as it moves
• adaptive antennas most powerful form
• beam pattern G() has maximum gain in the
direction of desired user
• beam is formed by N-element adaptive
array antenna
Capacity of SDMA systems

• G() steered in the horizontal  -plane

through 360°
• G() has no variation in the elevation plane
to account which are near to and far from the
base station
• following picture shows a 60 degree
beamwidth with a 6 dB sideslope level
Capacity of SDMA systems
Capacity of SDMA systems

• reverse link received signal power, from

desired mobiles, is Pr;0
• interfering users i = 1,…,k-1 have received
power Pr;I
• average total interference power I seen by a
single desired user:
Capacity of SDMA

K-1
I = E {  G(i) Pr;I}
i=1

 i … direction of the i-th user in the

horizontal plane
• E … expectation operator
Capacity of SDMA systems
• in case of perfect power control (received power from each user is the
same) :

Pr;I = Pc

• Average interference power seen by user 0:

K-1
I = Pc E {  G(i) }
i=1
Capacity of SDMA systems

• users independently and identically

distributed throughout the cell:

I = Pc *(k -1) * 1/D

• D … directivity of the antenna - given by max(G())

• D typ. 3dB …10dB
 Capacity of SDMA systems
• Average bit error rate Pb for user 0:

Pb = Q ( 3 D N )
K-1
• D … directivity of the antenna
• Q(x) … standard Q-function
• N … spreading factor
• K … number of users in a cell
Capacity of SDMA systems