Artificial intelligence

What is Artificial Intelligence?

• It is a branch of computer science by which we can create intelligent

machines which can behave like a human, think like humans, and able
to make decisions.
• Artificial Intelligence exists when a machine can have human based
skills such as learning, reasoning, and solving problems
• With Artificial Intelligence you do not need to preprogram a machine
to do some work, despite that you can create a machine with
programmed algorithms which can work with own intelligence, and
that is the awesomeness of AI.
Why Artificial Intelligence?

• With the help of AI, you can create such software or devices which
can solve real-world problems very easily and with accuracy such as
health issues, marketing, traffic issues, etc.
• With the help of AI, you can create your personal virtual Assistant,
such as Google Assistant, Siri, etc.
• With the help of AI, you can build such Robots which can work in an
environment where survival of humans can be at risk.
• AI opens a path for other new technologies, new devices, and new
Opportunities.
Goals of Artificial Intelligence
• Replicate human intelligence
• Solve Knowledge-intensive tasks
• An intelligent connection of perception and action
• Building a machine which can perform tasks that requires human
intelligence such as:
• Proving a theorem
• Playing chess
• Plan some surgical operation
• Driving a car in traffic
• Creating some system which can exhibit intelligent behavior, learn
new things by itself, demonstrate, explain, and can advise to its user.
Advantages of Artificial
Intelligence
• High Accuracy with less errors: AI machines or systems are prone to less errors and
high accuracy as it takes decisions as per pre-experience or information.
• High-Speed: AI systems can be of very high-speed and fast-decision making, because of
that AI systems can beat a chess champion in the Chess game.
• High reliability: AI machines are highly reliable and can perform the same action
multiple times with high accuracy.
• Useful for risky areas: AI machines can be helpful in situations such as defusing a
bomb, exploring the ocean floor, where to employ a human can be risky.
• Digital Assistant: AI can be very useful to provide digital assistant to the users such as
AI technology is currently used by various E-commerce websites to show the products
as per customer requirement.
• Useful as a public utility: AI can be very useful for public utilities such as a self-driving
car which can make our journey safer and hassle-free, facial recognition for security
purpose, Natural language processing to communicate with the human in human-
language, etc.
Disadvantages of Artificial
Intelligence
• High Cost: The hardware and software requirement of AI is very costly as it requires
lots of maintenance to meet current world requirements.
• Can't think out of the box: Even we are making smarter machines with AI, but still they
cannot work out of the box, as the robot will only do that work for which they are
trained, or programmed.
• No feelings and emotions: AI machines can be an outstanding performer, but still it
does not have the feeling so it cannot make any kind of emotional attachment with
human, and may sometime be harmful for users if the proper care is not taken.
• Increase dependency on machines: With the increment of technology, people are
getting more dependent on devices and hence they are losing their mental capabilities.
• No Original Creativity: As humans are so creative and can imagine some new ideas but
still AI machines cannot beat this power of human intelligence and cannot be creative
and imaginative.
 Approaches of AI
• Turing test Approach
• Cognitive modeling approach
• Laws of thought approach
• Rational agent approach
Turing Test in AI

• In 1950, Alan Turing introduced a test to check whether a machine

can think like a human or not, this test is known as the Turing Test. In
this test, Turing proposed that the computer can be said to be an
intelligent if it can mimic human response under specific conditions.
• Turing Test was introduced by Turing in his 1950 paper, "Computing
Machinery and Intelligence," which considered the question, "Can
Machine think?"
• The Turing test is based on a party game "Imitation game," with some
modifications. This game involves three players in which one player is
Computer, another player is human responder, and the third player is a
human Interrogator, who is isolated from other two players and his job is
to find that which player is machine among two of them.
• Consider, Player A is a computer, Player B is human, and Player C is an
interrogator. Interrogator is aware that one of them is machine, but he
needs to identify this on the basis of questions and their responses.
• The conversation between all players is via keyboard and screen so the
result would not depend on the machine's ability to convert words as
speech.
• The test result does not depend on each correct answer, but only how
closely its responses like a human answer. The computer is permitted to do
everything possible to force a wrong identification by the interrogator.
Rational agent approach

• Agents in Artificial Intelligence

• An AI system can be defined as the study of the rational agent and its
environment. The agents sense the environment through sensors and
act on their environment through actuators. An AI agent can have
mental properties such as knowledge, belief, intention, etc.
What is an Agent?

• An agent can be anything that perceive its environment through

sensors and act upon that environment through actuators. An Agent
runs in the cycle of perceiving, thinking, and acting. An agent can be:
• Human-Agent: A human agent has eyes, ears, and other organs which
work for sensors and hand, legs, vocal tract work for actuators.
• Robotic Agent: A robotic agent can have cameras, infrared range
finder, NLP for sensors and various motors for actuators.
• Software Agent: Software agent can have keystrokes, file contents as
sensory input and act on those inputs and display output on the
screen.
• Hence the world around us is full of agents such as thermostat,
cellphone, camera, and even we are also agents.
• Before moving forward, we should first know about sensors, effectors,
and actuators.
• Sensor: Sensor is a device which detects the change in the environment
and sends the information to other electronic devices. An agent
observes its environment through sensors.
• Actuators: Actuators are the component of machines that converts
energy into motion. The actuators are only responsible for moving and
controlling a system. An actuator can be an electric motor, gears, rails,
etc.
• Effectors: Effectors are the devices which affect the environment.
Effectors can be legs, wheels, arms, fingers, wings, fins, and display
screen.
Intelligent Agents:
An intelligent agent is an autonomous entity which act upon an
environment using sensors and actuators for achieving goals. An
intelligent agent may learn from the environment to achieve their
goals. A thermostat is an example of an intelligent agent.
Following are the main four rules for an AI agent:
Rule 1: An AI agent must have the ability to perceive the environment.
Rule 2: The observation must be used to make decisions.
Rule 3: Decision should result in an action.
Rule 4: The action taken by an AI agent must be a rational action.
• Rational Agent:
• A rational agent is an agent which has clear preference, models
uncertainty, and acts in a way to maximize its performance measure
with all possible actions.
• A rational agent is said to perform the right things. AI is about
creating rational agents to use for game theory and decision theory
for various real-world scenarios.
• For an AI agent, the rational action is most important because in AI
reinforcement learning algorithm, for each best possible action, agent
gets the positive reward and for each wrong action, an agent gets a
negative reward.
• Rationality:
• The rationality of an agent is measured by its performance measure.
Rationality can be judged on the basis of following points:
• Performance measure which defines the success criterion.
• Agent prior knowledge of its environment.
• Best possible actions that an agent can perform.
• The sequence of percepts.
Cognitive modeling
• Cognitive modeling is an area of computer science that deals with
simulating human problem-solving and mental processing in a
computerized model. Such a model can be used to simulate or predict
human behavior or performance on tasks similar to the ones modeled
and improve human-computer interaction.
• Cognitive modeling is used in numerous artificial intelligence (AI)
applications, such as expert systems, natural language processing,
neural networks, and in robotics and virtual reality applications.
Cognitive models are also used to improve products in manufacturing
segments, such as human factors, engineering, and computer game
and user interface design.
• Neural networks work similarly to the human brain by running
training data through a large number of computational nodes, called
artificial neurons, which pass information back and forth between
each other. By accumulating information in this distributed way,
applications can make predictions about future inputs.
• Reinforcement learning is an increasingly prominent area of cognitive
modeling. This approach has algorithms run through many iterations
of a task that takes multiple steps, incentivizing actions that
eventually produce positive outcomes, while penalizing actions that
lead to negative ones. This is a primary part of the AI algorithm that
Google's DeepMind used for its AlphaGo application, which bested
the top human Go players in 2016.
• These models, which can also be used in natural language processing
and smart assistant applications, have improved human-computer
interaction, making it possible for machines to have rudimentary
conversations with humans.
Potential limitations of
cognitive modeling
• Despite advancements in applying cognitive models to artificial
intelligence, it still falls short of its true goal of simulating human
thinking. In neural networks, for example, algorithms must see
thousands -- or even millions -- of examples of training data before
they can make predictions about similar data in the future. Even then,
they can only make inferences about the narrow topic area on which
they trained.
• This is very different from how human brains work. The human brain
uses a combination of context and more limited experience to make
generalizations about new experiences, something even the most
advanced cognitive models can't do today.
 laws of thought

In the ``laws of thought'' approach to AI, the whole emphasis was on

correct inferences. Making correct inferences is sometimes part of
being a rational agent, because one way to act rationally is to reason
logically to the conclusion that a given action will achieve one's goals,
and then to act on that conclusion
History of Artificial Intelligence

• Artificial Intelligence is not a new word and not a new technology for
researchers. This technology is much older than you would imagine.
Even there are the myths of Mechanical men in Ancient Greek and
Egyptian Myths. Following are some milestones in the history of AI
which defines the journey from the AI generation to till date
development.
Maturation of Artificial Intelligence (1943-1952)

• Year 1943: The first work which is now recognized as AI was done by
Warren McCulloch and Walter pits in 1943. They proposed a model of
artificial neurons.
• Year 1949: Donald Hebb demonstrated an updating rule for modifying
the connection strength between neurons. His rule is now called
Hebbian learning.
• Year 1950: The Alan Turing who was an English mathematician and
pioneered Machine learning in 1950. Alan Turing publishes "Computing
Machinery and Intelligence" in which he proposed a test. The test can
check the machine's ability to exhibit intelligent behavior equivalent to
human intelligence, called a Turing test.
The birth of Artificial
Intelligence (1952-1956)
• Year 1955: An Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon created the "first
artificial intelligence program"Which was named as "Logic Theorist".
This program had proved 38 of 52 Mathematics theorems, and find
new and more elegant proofs for some theorems.
• Year 1956: The word "Artificial Intelligence" first adopted by American
Computer scientist John McCarthy at the Dartmouth Conference. For
the first time, AI coined as an academic field.
• At that time high-level computer languages such as FORTRAN, LISP, or
COBOL were invented. And the enthusiasm for AI was very high at
that time.
The golden years-Early enthusiasm (1956-1974)

• Year 1966: The researchers emphasized developing algorithms which

can solve mathematical problems. Joseph Weizenbaum created the
first chatbot in 1966, which was named as ELIZA.
• Year 1972: The first intelligent humanoid robot was built in Japan
which was named as WABOT-1.
The first AI winter (1974-1980)

• The duration between years 1974 to 1980 was the first AI winter
duration. AI winter refers to the time period where computer scientist
dealt with a severe shortage of funding from government for AI
researches.
• During AI winters, an interest of publicity on artificial intelligence was
decreased.
A boom of AI (1980-1987)

• Year 1980: After AI winter duration, AI came back with "Expert

System". Expert systems were programmed that emulate the
decision-making ability of a human expert.
• In the Year 1980, the first national conference of the American
Association of Artificial Intelligence was held at Stanford University.
The second AI winter (1987-
1993)
• The duration between the years 1987 to 1993 was the second AI
Winter duration.
• Again Investors and government stopped in funding for AI research as
due to high cost but not efficient result. The expert system such as
XCON was very cost effective.
The emergence of intelligent agents (1993-
2011)

• Year 1997: In the year 1997, IBM Deep Blue beats world chess
champion, Gary Kasparov, and became the first computer to beat a
world chess champion.
• Year 2002: for the first time, AI entered the home in the form of
Roomba, a vacuum cleaner.
• Year 2006: AI came in the Business world till the year 2006.
Companies like Facebook, Twitter, and Netflix also started using AI.
Deep learning, big data and artificial general
intelligence (2011-present)

• Year 2011: In the year 2011, IBM's Watson won jeopardy, a quiz show, where it had
to solve the complex questions as well as riddles. Watson had proved that it could
understand natural language and can solve tricky questions quickly.
• Year 2012: Google has launched an Android app feature "Google now", which was
able to provide information to the user as a prediction.
• Year 2014: In the year 2014, Chatbot "Eugene Goostman" won a competition in the
infamous "Turing test."
• Year 2018: The "Project Debater" from IBM debated on complex topics with two
master debaters and also performed extremely well.
• Google has demonstrated an AI program "Duplex" which was a virtual assistant and
which had taken hairdresser appointment on call, and lady on other side didn't
notice that she was talking with the machine.
• Now AI has developed to a remarkable level. The concept of Deep
learning, big data, and data science are now trending like a boom.
Nowadays companies like Google, Facebook, IBM, and Amazon are
working with AI and creating amazing devices. The future of Artificial
Intelligence is inspiring and will come with high intelligence.