Microprocessors and

Microcontrollers
Ambresh

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 Introduction
Computer: A computer is a programmable machine that receives
input, stores and manipulates data/information, and provides output in
a useful format.
Basic computer system consist of a CPU, memory and I/O unit.

Address bus

I/O I/O
ROM RAM interfa devic
CP ce es
U
Data Contr
bus ol
bus
Block diagram of a basic computer
system
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 Microprocessor

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 Introduction
• T h e microprocessor also known as the central
processing unit, is the brain of all computers and
many household and electronic devices. Multiple
microprocessors, working together, are the "hearts"
of datacenters, super-computers, communications
products, and other digital devices.

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 History

• Fairchild Semiconductors (founded in 1957)

invented the first IC in 1959.
• In 1968, Robert Noyce, Gordan Moore, Andrew
Grove resigned from Fairchild Semiconductors.
• They founded their own company Intel (Integrated
Electronics).
• The first microprocessor invented was of 4-bit,
after that 8- bit,16-bit,.32-bit & 64-bit are
founded
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 History
 4-bit microprocessor
• Intel 4004
• Intel 4040
 8-bit microprocessor
• Intel 8008
• Intel 8080
• Intel 8085
 16-bit microprocessor
• Intel 8086
• Intel 8088
• Intel 80186 & 80188
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 History
• Intel 80286
 32-bit microprocessor
• Intel 80386
• Intel 80486
• Intel pentium
• Intel pentium pro
• Intel pentium II
• Intel pentium II xeon
• Intel pentium III
• Intel pentium IV
• Intel dual core
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 History

 64-bit
microprocessors
• Intel core 2
• Intel core i7
• Intel core i5
• Intel core i3

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 Microprocessor (MPU)
MPU (CPU)
Read
instructions
Process binary
data

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 Memory

Storage Device
Addresses

Registers

Major Categories
Read/Write
Memory (R/W)
Read-only-
Memory (ROM)
D7 D0
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 Input/Output (I/O)
 Input Devices
 Switches and Keypads
 Provide binary information to
the MPU
 Output devices
 LEDs and LCDs
 Receive binary information
from the MPU

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 Microprocessor Architecture
 The MPU communicates with Memory
and I/O using the System Bus
 Address bus
 Unidirectional

 Memory and I/O Addresses

 Data bus
 Bidirectional

 Transfers Binary Data and Instructions

 Control lines
 Re a d and Write timing signals

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 Microprocessor – Basic concept
ADDRESS BUS
32-bit / 64-bit wide

CPU

contains
CCU CONTROL BUS
ALU Timing signals, ready signals,
data registers interrupts etc
and
pointer registers

DATA BUS – bidirectional

8-bit / 16-bit / 32-bit / 128-bit
Microprocessor, by-itself, completely useless – must have external peripherals to
Interact with outside world

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 How does a Microprocessor
works
 To execute a program, the microprocessor “reads”
each instruction from memory, “interprets” it, then
“executes or perform” it.
 The right name for the cycle is
 Fetch
 Decode
 Execute
 This sequenceis continued until all instructions
are performed.

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 Machine Language
 To communicate with computer, instruction is given in binary
language.
 MP has 8 bit data, so 28 = 256 combinations. So difficult to
write programs in set of 0’s and 1’s .

for eg:
 0011 1100 – is an instruction that increments the number in
accumulator by 1
 1000 0000– is an instruction that add the number in register B to the
accumulator content , and keep the result in A.

So it is very tedious and error inductive. For convenience, written in

Hexadecimal code. For example 0011 1100 is equivalent to 3C H 15
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 8085 Assembly Language
 Even program is written in Hexa decimal. It is difficult to
understand.
 Program is written in mnemonic.

For E.g.: binary code 0011 1100 (3C H in hexadecimal) is

represented by INR A
 INR A –INR stands for Increment, A is accumulator… this symbol
suggest the
operation of incrementing the accumulator by 1

Similarly 1000 0000 is equivalent ( 80 H) is represented as

 ADD B– ADD stands for addition and B represents content in register
B. this symbol suggest that addition of the number in register B to the
accumulator content , and keep the result in A.
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***So& Technology
Faculty of Engineering MP has 246 such bit pattern amounting to 74 ©different
Ramaiah Universityinstruction
of Applied Sciences
 Features of Microprocessor- 8085
 8085 is developed by INTEL
 8 bit microprocessor: can accept 8 bit data simultaneously
 Operates on single +5V D.C. supply.
 Designed using NMOS technology
 6200 transistor on single chip
 It provides on chip clock generator, hence it does not require external
clock
generator.
 Operates on 3MHz clock frequency.
 8bit multiplexed address/data bus, which reduce the number of pins.
 16address lines, hence it can address 2^16 = 64 K bytes of memory
 It generates 8 bit I/O addresses, hence it can access 2^8 = 256 I/O
ports.
 5 hardware interrupts i.e. TRAP, RST6.5, RST5.5, RST4.5, and INTR17
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 Internal Architecture (functional block 18
Faculty
©M. S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University diagram)of
& Technology
of Applied Sciences 8085 © Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
 8085 Architecture…….cont…
8085 architecture consists of following blocks:

1. Register Array

2. ALU & Logical Group

3. Instruction decoder and machine cycle encoder, Timing

and control circuitry

4. Interrupt control Group

5. Serial I/O control Group

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 8085 Architecture ……
cont….
1. Registers Array : 14 register out of which 12 are 8 bit capacity and 2 of 16
bit. Classify into 4 types

(a) General purpose register: (user accessible)

B,C,D,E,H,L are 8 bit register.(can be used singly)
 Can also be used for 16-bit register pairs- BC,
 DE & HL. Used to store the intermediate data
 and result
(b) H & L Purpose
Special can be used as a data pointer(holds
Register[A, Instruction Register
memory
and Flag] address)

(b.1) Accumulator
 (A): (user accessible)
8 bit register
 All the ALU operations are performed with reference to the contents of
 Accumulator. Result of an operation is stored in A.
 Store 8 bit data during I/O transfer
(b.2) Instruction Register: (user not
accessible)
 When an instruction is fetched from memory, it is loaded in IR. Then
transferred to the
decoder for decoding.

It is not programmable and can not be accessed through any instruction.

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 8085 Architecture ……
cont….
(b.3) Flag Register(F): (user accessible)
 8 bit Register
 Indicates the status of the ALU operation.
 ALU includes 5 flip flop, which are set or reset after an
operation
according to data conditions of the result in the
accumulator.

(Flag
Register) 21
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 Flag Register…… cont….
Flag Significance
C or CY (Carry) CY is set when an arithmetic operation generates a
carry
out, otherwise it is 0 (reset)
P (Parity) P= 1; if the result of an ALU operation has an
even number of 1’s in A;
P= 0; if number of 1 is odd.

AC (Auxiliary Similar to CY,

carry) AC= 1 if there is a carry from D3 to
D4 Bit AC= 0 if there is a no carry
from D3 to D4 Bit (not available for
user)
Z(zero) Z = 1; if result in A
is 00H 0 otherwise

S(Sign) S=1 if D7 bit of the A is 1(indicate the result is -

ive)
S= 0 if D7 bit of the A is 0(indicate the result is
+ive) 22
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 8085 Architecture ……
cont….
(c)Temporary Register[ W, Z, Temporary data
register]
 Internally used by the MP(user not accessible)
(c.1)
 W and
8 bit Z register:
capacity
 Used to hold temporary addresses during the execution
of some instructions
(c.2) Temporary data
register:
 8 bit capacity
 Used to hold temporary data during ALU
operations.

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 8085 Architecture ……
(d.1)
cont….
(d)Pointer Register or special purpose [SP, PC]
Stack Pointer(SP)
 16 bit address which holds the address of the data present at the top
of the stack
memory
 It is a reserved area of the memory in the RAM to store and retrieve the
temporary information.
 Also hold the content of PC when subroutines are used.
 When there is a subroutine call or on an interrupt. ie. pushing the return
address on a jump, and retrieving it after the operation is complete to
come back to its original location.
(d. Program Counter(PC)
3)
 16 bit address used for the execution of program
 Contain the address of the next instruction to be executed after fetching
the instruction it is automatically incremented by 1.
 Not much use in programming, but as an indicator to user only.
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 8085 Architecture …… cont….
In addition to register MP contains some latches
and buffer
 Increment
 and decrement address latch
16 bit register
 Used to increment or decrement the content of
PC and SP
 Address
buffer
 8 bit unidirectional buffer
 Used to drive high order address bus(A8 to A15)
 When it is not used under such as reset, hold and halt etc this
buffer is used tristate high order address bus.
 Data/Address
buffer
 8 bit bi-Directional buffer
 Used to drive the low order address (A0 to A7) and data (D0 to
D7) bus.

Under certain conditions such as reset, hold and halt etc this
buffer is used tristate low order address bus. 25
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 8085 Architecture …… cont….
(2)ALU & Logical Group: it consists ALU, Accumulator,
Temporary
register and Flag Register.

(a) ALU
 Performs arithmetic and logical operations
 Stores result of arithmetic and logical operations in
accumulator

(b) Accumulator
 General purpose register
 Stores one of the operand before any arithmetic and
logical operations and result of operation is again
stored back in Accumulator 26
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 8085 Architecture …… cont….
(2)ALU & Logical Group…………………..cont…………………

(c) Temporary Register

 8 bit register
 During the arithmetic and logical operations one operand is
available in A and other operand is always transferred to
temporary register

For Eg.: ADD B – content of B is transferred into temporary

register before actual addition

(d) Flag Register

 Five flag is connected to ALU
 After the ALU operation is performed the status of result will
be stored in five flags.
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 8085 Architecture …… cont….
(3)Instruction decoder and machine cycle encoder,
Timing and control circuitry
(a) Instruction decoder and machine cycle
encoder :
 Decodes the op-code stored in the Instruction
Register (IR)
and establishes the sequence of events to
follow.
 Encodes it and transfer to the timing & control unit to
perform the execution of the instruction.
(b)Timing and control circuitry
 works as the brain of the CPU
 For proper sequence and synchronization of all the
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operations
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 8085 Architecture …… cont….
(4)Interrupt Control group
 Interrupt:- Occurrence of an external disturbance
 After servicing the interrupt, 8085 resumes its normal
working sequence
 Transfer the control to special routines
 Five interrupts: - TRAP, RST7.5, RST6.5, RST5.5, INTR
 In response to INTR, it generates INTA signal

(5) Serial I/O control Group

 Data transfer red on D0- D7 lines is parallel data
 But under some condition it is used serial data transfer
 Serial data is entered through SID(serial input data) input
(received)
 Serial data is outputted on SOD(serial output data) input
(send) 29
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 8085 Pin Diagram

Pin Functional Pin diagram 30

Configuration
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 Fetching & Exécution Cycles

 Fetching Cycles
 The fetch cycle takes the instruction
required from memory,
stores it in the instruction register, and
 Moves the program counter on one so that it
points to the next instruction.

 Execute cycle
 The actual actions which occur during the execute
cycle of
an instruction.
 Depend on both the instruction itself and the
addressing mode specified to be used to access the
data that may be required. 31
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 Instruction Formats
 Each instruction has two parts.

 Opcode (operation code)- The first part is the task or

operation to be performed.

 Operand - The second part is the data to be operated on.

Data can be
given in various form.
 It can specify in various ways: may include 8 bit/16 bit data, an
internal register, memory location or 8 bit /16 bit address.
 For MVI
Eg.: A,02H

Opcod Operan
e d
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 Opcode Format
Opcode contains the information regarding about
operation, register used, memory to be used etc.

 Fixed for each instruction.

Register Code
B 000 Regist Code
er
C 001 pair
D 010 BC 00
E 011 DE 01
H 100
HL 10
L 101
A, F, SP 11
M 110
A 111

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 Write the Assemble Program..cont..
Sta
rt

Load Block 1: MVI A, Load A with

Hex 32H 32 H Load B
Numbe MVI B, with 48 H
rs 48H
1
Add
Block 2: ADD Add two bytes and save
Numbers
B sum in A
2
Display Sum Block 3: OUT Display accumulator
01H content at port 01H
3

En Block 4: En
d 4 HALT d
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 Write the Assemble Program..cont..

Mnemoni Hex
cs Code
MVI A, 32H 3E 2 Byte Instruction
32
MVI B, 48H 06 2 Byte Instruction
48
ADD B 80 1 Byte Instruction
OUT 01H D3 2 Byte Instruction
01
HALT 76 1 Byte
Instruction

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 Program Stored in memory as
Mnemonics Hex Memory Memory
Code Content Address
MVI A, 32H 3E 0011 1110 2000
32 0011 0010 2001
MVI B, 48H 06 0000 0110 2002
48 0100 1000 2003
ADD B 80 1000 0000 2004
OUT 01H D3 1101 0011 2005
01 0000 0001 2006
HALT 76 0111 1110 2007

Eight Machine code, require eight memory location. MPU can only
understand binary code; everything else(Mnemonics, Hex code,
comments) for the convenience of human being.

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 Executing the Program
To execute the program, we need to tell the
MPU where the program begins by entering
the memory address 2000H.
 Push the execute Key, so MPU loads 2000H in PC.
 PC is transferred from the monitor program to our
program.
 MPU begin to read the one machine cycle at a time,
when it fetches the complete instruction, it execute
that instruction.
 For Eg. When it fetches the machine code stored in
2000 and 2001H and execute the instruction MVI A,
32H , thus load 32H in register A.
 Continue to execute the instruction until it fetches the
HLT
instruction.
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 Microcontroller

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 Micro controller
 A self-contained system in which a processor,
support, memory, and input/output (I/O) are all
contained in a single package.
 A small computer system on a single IC

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 History of Microcontroller

• First used in 1975(Intel 8048)

• The introduction of EEPROM in 1993,
allowed microcontrollers to be
electrically erased
• The same year, Atmel introduced the first
microcontroller using Flash memory.
• PIC microcontroller
• ARM controllers

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 Microcontroller

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 Basic Features of Microcontroller

Processor reset
Device clocking
Central processor
Programand Variable
Memory (RAM)
I/O pins
Instruction cycle timers

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 More Sophisticated Features

 Built-in monitor/debugger program

 Interrupt capability
 Analog I/O (PWM and variable dc I/O
 Serial I/O (synchronous, a synchronous)
 Parallel
I/O (including direct interface to a
master processor
 External memory interface

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 Basic microcontroller architecture (1/3)

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 Basic microcontroller architecture (2/3)
Memory
• RAM
• ROM
• Store data and code
CPU
• Mathematical and logical
operation
• Memory units are called
Register

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 Basic microcontroller architecture (3/3)
• BUS
– Group of 8,16 or more wires
– Three type, address bus, data bus
and control bus
• Input-output unit
– port A, port B, port C … …
– Input, output and bidirectional
ports
• Serial communication
• Timer unit
• Watchdog
– Automatic reset to prevent stall
• Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) 46
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 Processor Architecture
 CISC ( Complex Instruction Set Computer)
• Large amount of instructions each carrying out a
different permutation of the same operation
• Functionality of the instructions is more
dependent upon the processor’s designer.

 R I S C ( Re d u c e d Instruction Set Computer)

• Fundamental set of instructions
• More control for users to design their own
operations

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 Processor Architecture continued..

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 Processor Architecture continued..

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 Processor Architecture continued..

• The most common RISC microprocessors are

Alpha, ARC, ARM, AVR, MIPS, PA-RISC, PIC, Power
Architecture, and SPARC.

• RISC architecture is used in high-end applications

such as video processing, telecommunications,
and image processing.

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 Processor Architecture continued..

• Examples of CISC processors are the System/360,

VAX, PDP-11, Motorola 68000 family, AMD, and
Intel x86 CPUs
• CISC architecture is used in low-end applications
such as security systems, home automation, etc.

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 Von Neumann Architecture

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 Processor Architecture

 Princeton (Van Neumann) architecture

Common memory for program
and data
Simple chip design
Execution of an instruction can
take multiple cycles

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 Processor Architecture

 Harvard architecture
Separatememory space
program and data
Instructions are executed in
one cycle
Easier timing of loops and
delays
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 Harvard Architecture

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 Advantages of Microcontroller over
Microprocessor
 Pin count down
 Design time down, Board layout size down
 Upgrade path easier – matching between
peripherals for speed
 Cost down – bulk purchases
 Reliability up
 Common software / hardware design
environment available from manufacturer

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 Difference between
microprocessor & microcontroller
Microprocessor Microcontroller

Contains ALU, general purpose Contains the circuitary of

register, stack pointer, microprocessor & in addition it
programme counter, clock timing has built in ROM, I/O devices,
& interrupt circuit timer & counter
It has too many instructions to It has one or two instruction to
move the data between CPU & move the data between CPU &
memory memory
It has one or two bit handling It has many bit handling
instruction instruction
Access time for memory & I/O Less access time for built in
devices is more memory & I/O devices
Microprocessor based system Microcontroller based system
requires more hardware requires less hardware, reducing
PCB size & increasing the
reliability
More flexible in design point of Less flexible in design point of
view view 57
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 Terminologies associated with
Embedded tools

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 Host and Target Machine

• Application programs are typically developed,

compiled and run on host system

• Host is computer system on which all

programming tools run

• Once program has been written, compiled,

assembled and linked, it is moved to target

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 Embedded Tools

 Compiler
 Assembler
 Linker and locator
 Debugger
 Emulator
 Simulator
 Profiler

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 Compiler

• A software program that converts source code that in

high level programming language into low level
language.
• A Native-compiler runs on a computer platform and
produces code for that same computer platform.

• A Cross-compiler runs on one computer platform and

produces code for another computer platform.

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 Assembler
 An Assembler is software program that
converts source code written in assembly
language into machine language.

 The input to the Assembler must be assembly

language

 An Assembler that runs on Host but produces

binary instruction appropriate for Target is called
Cross- Assembler.
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 Locator assign memory

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 Linker and Locator

• A linker or link editor is a program that takes one

or more objects generated by compilers and
assembles them into a single executable program
or a library that can later be linked to in itself.
• All of the object files resulting from compiling
must be combined in a special way before the
program can be executed.

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 Linker and Locator

• A Locator is the tool that performs the conversion

from relocatable program to executable binary
image.
• It will produce an output file that contains a binary
image that can be loaded into the target ROM.
• You will have to provide information about the
memory on the target board as input to the locator.
• The locator uses this information to assign physical
memory addresses to each of the code and data
sections.
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 Debugger

• A debugger or debugging tool is a computer program

that is used to test and debug other programs.
• The code to be examined might alternatively be
running on an instruction set simulator .
• When the program crashes, the debugger shows the
actual position in the original code if it is a source-
level debugger.
• If it is a low-level debugger or a machine-language
debugger it shows that line in the program.

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 Emulator
• An emulator is a piece of Hardware/Software that
enables one computer system to run programs that
are written for another computer system.
• For example there is a Comodore 64 emulator for
the iPhone which allow you to run games that written
for the iPhone.
• An emulator is used on the target processor (the
processor for which the program is being written).

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 Emulator Hardware Emulator software

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 Simulator

• Simulator is a piece of Hardware/Software

that simulates another system.
• for example a flight simulator allows you to
experience what it is like to fly an aircraft, a
driving simulator to experience driving etc..
• Simulator tests the program on the development
processor(the processor on which we are
working).

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 Simulator Hardware Simulator Software

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 Profiler

• A Software Program that gathers information

about a program during execution.

• It is used to know which areas of code to optimize

Speed and Memory.

• Profiler may show time elapsed in each function

and its descendants number of calls , call-graph
(some)
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©M. S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
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& Technology
of Applied Sciences © Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
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Faculty
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of Engineering
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& Technology
of Applied Sciences © Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
 74
Faculty
©M. S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
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& Technology
of Applied Sciences © Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences