LOSSES FROM PRECIPITATION
• The hydrological equation states that ‗Runoff =
Rainfall – Losses‘. Hence the runoff from a watershed
resulting due to a storm is dependent on the losses.
Losses may occur due to the following reasons.
• 1. Evaporation
• 2. Evapotranspiration
• 3. Infiltration
• 4. Interception
• 5. Watershed leakage
• The first three contribute to the major amount of losses.
EVAPORATION
• INRTODUCTION
It is the process by which a liquid changes to gaseous state
at the free surface through transfer of heat energy. In an
exposed water body like lakes or ponds, water molecules
are in continuous motion with arrange of velocities (faster at
the top and slower at the bottom). Additional heat on water
body increases the velocities. When some water molecules
posses’ sufficient kinetic energy they may cross over the
water surface.
• Simultaneously the water molecules in atmosphere
surrounding the water body may penetrate the
water body due to condensation. If the number of
molecules leaving the water body is greater than
the number of molecules arriving or returning,
difference in vapour pressure occurs, leading to
evaporation
EVAPORATION PROCESS
• When the external thermal energy supplied to surface of
water body, the kinetic energy of water molecules will be
increased. When the molecules near the free surface attain
enough kinetic energy, they escape from the water body
they eject themselves in to the atmosphere. Out of total
atmospheric pressure on the free surface there will be
some contribution from the vapour molecules present in the
free surface. This partial pressure exerted by the vapour is
called vapour pressure. Continued supply of heat energy
causes accumulation of more and more vapour molecules
and thus gaseous medium can no longer accommodate
and reject vapour molecules in the form of condensation at
the same rate as vaporization.
• At this stage the air is said to be saturated. At saturation the
partial pressure exerted by water vapour is called the
saturation vapour pressure and denoted by (es) which
increase with temperature.
• Thus if vapour pressure of air above free surface of water is
already equal to the saturation vapour pressure (es) neither
evaporation no condensation takes place and then it is called
as equilibrium state
• From the above explanation for evaporation to occur it is
necessary to have:
• (1) A supply of water
• (2) A source of heat
• (3) Vapour pressure deficit,
• i.e difference b/w saturated vapour pressure of water
correspond to water temperature.
FACTORS AFFECTING EVAPORATION
I. Vapour pressure difference:
II. Temperature of air and water:
III. Wind Velocity:
IV. Quality of water:
V. Atmospheric pressure and Altitude:
VI. Depth of water body:
VII. Humidity:
VIII. Radiation:
Vapour pressure difference
• The number of molecules leaving or entering a
water body depends on the vapour pressure of
water body at the surface and also the vapour
pressure of air. Higher water temperature leads to
high vapour pressure at surface and tends to
increase the rate of evaporation. High humidity in
air tends to increase vapour pressure in air and in
turn reduces rate of evaporation.
Temperature of air and water
• The rate of emission of molecules from a water
body is a function of its temperature. At higher
temperature molecules of water have greater
energy to escape. Hence maximum evaporation
from water bodies takes place in summer. It has
been estimated that for every 1o C rise in
atmospheric temperature increases 5 cm of
evaporation annually.
Wind Velocity:
• When wind velocity is more the saturated air (humid air) is
drifted away and dry air comes in contact with water
surface which is ready to absorb moisture. Hence rate of
evaporation is dependent on wind velocity. It has been
estimated that 10% increase in wind velocity increases 2 –
3% of evaporation.
Quality of water:
• The rate of evaporation of fresh water is greater
than saline water. (Specific gravity of saline water is
greater than that of fresh water. It is established that
saline water has lesser vapour pressure and it is
observed that evaporation from fresh water is 3 –
4% more than sea water.
Atmospheric pressure and Altitude:
• Evaporation decreases with increase in atmospheric
pressure as the rate of diffusion from water body into the air
is suppressed. At higher altitude the atmospheric pressure
is usually lesser and there by evaporation rate is higher.
Depth of water body
• Evaporation shallow water bodies is greater when
compared to deep water bodies as the water at lower levels
in deep water bodies is not heated much and vapour
pressure at lower levels is also reduced.
Humidity:
• If the humidity of the atmosphere is more the evaporation
will be less because during the process of evaporation,
water vapour, moving from the point of higher moisture
content to lower moisture content and rate of this
movement is grounded by this difference of their moisture
content or moisture gradient existing in air.
Radiation:
• Since the evaporation requires continuous supply of
energy which is derived mainly from solar radiation.
The radiation will be a factor of considerable
importance. Evaporation increase and the radiation
increases and vice versa
DALTONS LAW OF EVAPORATION
• The rate of evaporation is function of the difference in vapour
pressure at the water surface and the atmosphere. Dalton‘s law of
evaporation states that ―Evaporation is proportional to the difference
in vapour pressures of water and air.
• i.e. E α (ew – ea) or E = k (ew – ea)
• Where, E = daily evaporation
• ew = saturated vapour pressure of water at a given temperature
• ea = vapour pressure of air
• k = proportionality constant
• Considering the effect of wind Dalton‘s Law is expressed as E = kl (ew – ea)
(a+b*V)
• Where, V = wind velocity in km/hour kl , a & b are constants for a given area.
MEASUREMENT OF EVAPORATION
• In order to ensure proper planning and operation of
reservoirs and irrigation systems estimation of
evaporation is necessary. However exact
measurement of evaporation is not possible. But the
following methods are adopted as they give reliable
results.
Pan measurement methods
Use of empirical formulae
Storage equation method
Energy budget method
PAN MEASUREMENT METHOD
• Any galvanized iron cylindrical vessel of 1.2 m to 1.8 m
diameter, 300 mm depth with opening at the top can be
used as an evapometer or evaporation pan. During any
interval of time evaporation is measured as the drop in
water level in the pan. Rainfall data, atmospheric pressure
data, temperature, etc should also be recorded.
• It has been correlated that evaporation from a pan is not
exactly the same as that taking place from a water body.
Hence while using a pan measurement data for measuring
evaporation from a lake or a water body, a correction factor
has to be applied or multiplied by a pan co-efficient
• Pan co-efficient = (actual evaporation from reservoir
/ measured evaporation from pan) The evaporation
pans adopted in practice have a pan coefficient of
0.7 to 0.8. The popularly used evaporation pans
are:
• 1. ISI standard pan or Class A pan
• 2. US Class A pan
• 3. Colorado sunken pan
• 4. US Geological Survey floating pan
• This evaporation pan should confirm to IS – 5973:1976 and
is also called Class A pan. It consists of a circular copper
vessel of 1220 mm effective diameter, 255 mm effective
depth and a wall thickness of 0.9 mm. A thermometer is
assembled to record the variation in temperature. A wire
mesh cover with hexagonal openings is provided at the top
to prevent entry of foreign matter. A fixed gauge housed in a
stilling well as shown in figure is provided.
• During evaporation measurement a constant water level is
maintained at the top level of fixed gauge. For this purpose
water has to be added or removed periodically. The water
level measurements are done using micrometer hook
gauge. The entire assembly is mounted on a level wooden
platform
PAN CO-EFFICCIENT
• Evaporation pans are not exact models of large reservoirs
or lakes, because of the exposure conditions which are not
identical in both the cases. Specially the heat storing
capacity and the heat transformed from the side & bottom
of pan are quite different from those of large lake are
reservoir, also the height of the rim above the water surface
in the pan effects the wind action over the surface and
creates a shadow of variable magnitude over water surface
which effects radiation incident to the water surface. In view
of the above evaporation measured from the pans has to
be corrected to get the evaporation from the lake under a
similar climatic exposure condition. Thus a co-efficient
called pan co-efficient is introduced and is given by:
• Pan Co-efficient (Cp) = (Actual evaporation from the
lakes or reservoirs/ Measured evaporation from the
pan)
• The pan co-efficient for different types of pans are
tabulated below:-
Type of Pan Range of Cp Average Cp
ISI Pan 0.65-1.0 0.80
Class A load pan 0.60-0.80 0.7
Colorado Sunken pan 0.75-0.86 0.78
Floating Pan 0.70-0.80 0.80
USE OF EMPIRICAL FORMULAE
• Based on Dalton‘s law of evaporation, various formulae have been suggested
to estimate evaporation
• 1. Meyer‘s formula:
• E = C*(es – ea)*(1+0.06215V
• Where,
• E = evaporation from water body (mm/month)
• es= saturation vapour pressure at water surface (mm of mercury)
corresponding to mean monthly temperature of water
• ea= actual vapour pressure of air based on mean monthly temperature &
relative humidity
• v = monthly mean wind velocity in Km/hr, 10m above the ground
• c = 50 (small shallow ponds) = 11 (for large or deep water bodies)
• Rohwer‘s formula:
•
• E = 0.771(1.465 – 0.000732Pa)*(0.44+0.7334v)*(es – ea)
• Where, E = evaporation in mm/day
• Pa = Mean Barometric Reading in mm mercury
• es= saturation vapour pressure at water surface (mm of mercury)
corresponding to mean monthly temperature of water
• ea= actual vapour pressure of air based on mean monthly
temperature & relative humidity
• v = monthly mean wind velocity in Km/hr, 10m above the ground
What is reservoir evaporation?
• However, these artificial lakes and
reservoirs evaporate more water than the natural
surface water flow before the dam was built,
because dams generally increase the surface area
of the body of water. This means that more water is
exposed to air and direct sunlight, thus increasing
evaporation.
METHODS TO CONTROL EVAPORATION FROM LAKES
• Following are some recommended measures to
reduce evaporation from water surfaces.
• 1) Storage reservoirs should have more depth and less
surface area. The site for construction of a dam should be
so chosen that a deep reservoir with minimum surface area
exposed to atmosphere is formed.
• 2) Tall trees on the wind ward side of the reservoir should
be planted so that they act as wind breakers.
• 3) By spraying a chemical such as Acetyl Alcohol on water
surface, a film of 0.15 microns thickness is produced on the
surface. This film allows precipitation in but does not allow
evaporation. This is suitable when wind velocities are less
and for small and medium sized reservoirs.
• 4) In case of ponds and lakes entire water body can be
covered by thin polythene sheets as mechanical covering.
• 5) In reservoirs outlet arrangements should be so done to
let out warmer water at top than cold water from bottom.
• 6)De-weeding the reservoirs should be done such that
water consumed by weeds is reduced.
• 7) The streams and channels to be straightened so that
length and in turn exposed area to atmosphere are
reduced.
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
• Evapotranspiration: In agricultural fields apart from transpiration, water
is also lost due to evaporation from adjacent soil. The sum of these two
losses is often termed as evapotranspiration (Et) or consumptive use
(Cu).
• Potential evapotranspiration: When sufficient moisture is freely
available to completely meet the needs of the vegetation fully covering
an area, the resulting evapotranspiration is called potential
evapotranspiration
• Actual evapotranspiration: The real evapotranspiration occurring
in a specific situation in the field is called actual evapotranspiration.
The knowledge of evapotranspiration, potential evapotranspiration
and actual evapotranspiration are very much useful in designing
irrigation systems (in deciding the amount of water to be supplied
for raising crops).
FACTORS AFFECTING EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
• Potential evapotranspiration is controlled by meteorological
facts but actual evapotranspiration is affected by plant and soil
factors. In total the factors affecting evapotranspiration are:
• 1.Temperature
• 2. Humidity
• 3. Percentage sunshine hours
• 4. Wind speed
• 5. Type of crop
• 6. Season
• 7. Moisture holding capacity of soil
• 8. Irrigation Methods
• 9. Cropping patterns
DETERMINATION OF EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (ET) OR
CONSUMPTIVE USE OF WATER
• The time interval for supplying water to agricultural crops, is
a factor dependent on water requirement of crops, soil
properties and as well as consumptive use. Hence accurate
determination of consumptive use or evapotranspiration is
very much essential. The methods of determining
consumptive use are:-
• i) Direct measurement method
• ii) By use of empirical formulae
Direct measurement methods
• The different methods of direct measurement are
• Soil moisture studies on plots
• Tank and lysimeter method
• Field experimental plots
• Integration method
• Inflow and outflow studies for large areas
Soil moisture studies on plots
• Soil moisture measurements are done before and after
supplying water. The quantity of water extracted per day
from the soil is computed for each required period. A curve
is drawn by plotting the rate of water consumed against
time. This curve is useful for determining the average
consumption daily or on monthly basis.
Tank and lysimeter method
• Tanks are watertight cylindrical containers which are open
at one end. They have a diameter of 1-3 m and depth of 2-3
m. They are set in ground with the rim in flush with the
ground surface. The quantity of water to keep a constant
moisture content (for optimum growth) is determined, which
itself represents consumptive use.
• A lysimeter is a container similar to tank but has pervious
bottom free drainage through the bottom is collected in a
pan which is kept below. The consumptive use of water in
this case therefore the difference between the water
applied and drainage collected in the pan.
Field experimental plots
• In this method water is applied to selected field plots in
such a way that there is neither runoff nor deep percolation.
Yield obtained from different plots is plotted against total
water used. It can be observed that increase in yield occurs
with increase in water applied up to a certain point. Further
increase in water content reduces yield. This break point in
water application is taken as consumptive use.
Integration method
• In this method the consumptive use of water for large areas
is determined as the sum of the following products.
• I) Consumptive use of each crop and its area
• II) Consumptive use of natural vegetation and its area
• III) Evaporation from water surfaces and their area
• IV) Evaporation from open lands and their area
Inflow and outflow studies for large areas
• In this method consumptive use of water for large areas is
given by the equation
• Cu= I+P + (Gs - Ge) – O
• Where,
• I= Total inflow into the area during a year
• P = Total precipitation in the area during a year
• Gs = Ground water storage at the beginning of the year
• Ge = Ground water storage at the end of the year
• O = Outflow from the area during the year
By Use of Empirical formulae
• Following are some of the empirical methods or relations
suggested for calculating consumptive use
• a) Blaney Criddle method
• b) Penman method
• c) Lowry and Johnson method
• d) Hargreaves pan method
BLANEY CRIDDLE EQUATION
• Blaney and Criddle developed a simple equation for
estimating evapotranspiration. It is assumed that the
evapotranspiration is closely correlated with the mean
monthly temperatures and daylight hours. The monthly
consumptive use factor ‘f’ is defined as:
• f = (p*Tm / 100)
• Where Tm is the monthly mean temperature in 0F,
• p is the monthly daylight hours expressed as percent of the
daylight hours of the year and f is in inches.
• In other words p is obtained from the expression
• p = (possible sunshine hours for the particular month/
possible sunshine hours for the whole year) * 100
• p = (possible sunshine hours for the particular month/ 365*12) * 100
The value of p depends on the latitude of the place and the month of
the year. The monthly consumptive use is then obtained as:
• u = k*
• Where k is an empirical crop co-efficient. The monthly
consumptive use u are added for all the months of the crop to
yield the seasonal consumptive use or the total
evapotranspiration in inches. The value of k depends on the
month and the place. The Blaney – Criddle equation gives
reasonably accurate estimates of evapotranspiration provided a
locally developed crop co-efficient is used. However it takes
only temperature and daylight hours into account and the other
important factors like humidity and wind are ignored.
