DEFINING

RESEARCH
Click this link to answer this question:
What is your PERSONAL definition of
research?
2
RESEARCH
◦Literature review
◦any gathering of data,
information and facts for the
advancement of knowledge
RESEARCH
• methodical What is the goal
study of any
• hypothesis experimental
process?
RESEARCH
• Systematic process What is the
• Collect/analyze goal of any
information experimental
• Increase process?
understanding
RESEARCH • Systematic
investigation
• Discover,
interpret, and
develop methods
RESEARCH

What is the
function of the
researcher?
RESEARCH
•Research must be
systematic and follow a
series of steps and a rigid
standard protocol.
RESEARCH
•Scientific research must be
organized and undergo planning,
including performing literature
reviews of past research and
evaluating what questions need
to be answered.
 Research is an
ORGANIZED and
SYSTEMATIC way of
FINDING ANSWERS
to QUESTIONS.
ORGANIZED
•in that there is a structure or method
in going about doing research. It is a
planned procedure, not a
spontaneous one. It is focused and
limited to a specific scope.
SYSTEMATIC
•because there is a definite set of
procedures and steps which you will
follow. There are certain things in the
research process which are always done
in order to get the most accurate results.
FINDING ANSWERS
•is the end of all research. Whether it is
the answer to a hypothesis or even a
simple question, research is successful
when we find answers. Sometimes the
answer is no, but it is still an answer.
QUESTIONS
•are central to research. If there is no
question, then the answer is of no use.
•Research is focused on relevant, useful, and
important questions. Without a question,
research has no focus, drive, or purpose.
 Research is an
ORGANIZED and
SYSTEMATIC way of
FINDING ANSWERS
to QUESTIONS.
17 RESEARCH
The ability to answer a question or
concern facing many of people in a
given field.
Experts and professionals continually
need to seek information in order to
perform their jobs.
18 WHAT RESEARCH IS NOT
Research is not mere information
gathering.
Research is not mere transportation
of facts from one location to another.
Research is not merely rummaging
for information.
  Research is guided by the
CHARACTERISTICSspecific
OF RESEARCH
research problem,
 Research originates with a
question, or hypothesis.
question or problem.  Research accepts certain
 Research requires clear critical assumptions.
articulation of a goal.  Research requires the
 Research requires a collection and
specific plan for interpretation of data in
proceeding. an attempt to resolve the
 Research usually divides problem that initiated the
the principal problem into research.
more manageable  Research is, by its nature,
19

subproblems.
RESEARCH
CYCLE

20
WAYS OF “KNOWING”:
EPISTEMOLOGY
EPISTEMOLOGY
the branch of
philosophy that studies
the nature of
knowledge, in
particular its
foundations, scope,
and validity
WAYS OF “KNOWING”
•INTUITIVE KNOWLEDGE
•AUTHORITATIVE KNOWLEDGE
•LOGICAL KNOWLEDGE
•EMPIRICAL KNOWLEDGE
 Write I – intuitive; A – authoritative;
L – logical; and E – empirical.
•It rains on Tuesdays.
•If a bag contained 70 blue
candies, 20 pink candies, and
10 yellow candies, the next
person to draw out a candy
would probably get a blue
one.
•A person’s name affects
how other people perceive
that person’s personality or
attitude.
•Dinosaurs existed on earth
and that they are all now
extinct.
•If a piece of stone, and a
piece of paper were to be
thrown off the fourth floor;
then, the stone will hit the
ground first.
•The way to a person’s heart
is through his stomach.
•If you live with a chain-smoker,
your lungs are soot-filled, black
and damaged.
•If one person were to stare
straight up into the sky in the
midst of many people, other
people will do the same, even
though they do not know why.
 WAYS OF “KNOWING”
AS USED IN RESEARCH

•INTUITIVE (when coming up with an initial idea for

research)
•AUTHORITATIVE (when reviewing the professional
literature)
•LOGICAL (when reasoning from findings to
conclusions)
•EMPIRICAL (when engaging in procedures that lead
to these findings)
KINDS OF RESEARCH
 BASIC
RESEARCH
is concerned with knowledge for the sake
of theory. Its design is not controlled by
the practical usefulness of the findings
 APPLIED
RESEARCH
is concerned with showing how the
findings can be applied or
summarized into some type of
teaching methodology.
 PRACTICAL
RESEARCH
applies the findings of
research to a specific
"practical" teaching situation.
KINDS OF RESEARCH
Scientific Research:
Problem-Solving Process

Formulation and development

of the problem for
investigation
Selection and use of one or
more appropriate methods
for gathering evidence
Reporting & implementation of

the results
 METHODS OF RESEARCH
Frederick Whitney (1950) classifies methods
of research into eight categories:

Descripti Sociologi
Creative
ve cal

Prognosti Research in
Historical the
c
curriculum-
making

Experiment Philosophic
al al
THE DESCRIPTIVE TYPE
(Nonexperimental Approach)

Fact-finding
with adequate
interpretation
 DEFINING
QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
Qualitative Research
• A research type that puts premium or high
value on people’s thinking or point of view
conditioned by personal traits
• Usually takes place in “soft sciences”: social
sciences, politics, economics, humanities,
education, psychology, nursing, and all
business-type research
Characteristics of
Qualitative Research
1. Human 4. Specificity to
understanding and generalization
interpretation 5. Contextualization
2. Active, powerful, 6. Diversified data in
forceful real-life situations
3. Multiple research 7. Abounds with words
approaches and and visuals
methods
8. Internal analysis
Advantages/Strengths of Qualitative Research

1. Adopts naturalistic approach

2. Promotes full understanding of human behavior or personality traits
3. Instrumental for positive societal changes
4. It engenders respect for people’s individuality
5. Way of understanding and interpreting social interactions
6. Increases the researcher’s interest in the study
7. Offers multiple ways of acquiring and examining knowledge about
something
RESEARCH
SURVEY
TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH:
PHENOMENOLOGY
TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH:
CASE-STUDY
TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH:
 FIELD STUDIES
Naturalistic Observation Participant-observer Studies

• Technique of observing • Researcher becomes

behaviors as they occur a part of the group
spontaneously being studied
• Observers remain
• Group members are
unobtrusive
not told they are
Ex: Shanghai Bank
being studied
CONTINUITY
DESCRIPTION
Longitudinal study
 LIBRARY AND
DOCUMENTARY
RESEARCH
THE HISTORICAL TYPE
•interprets past trends
of attitudes, events or
facts
•What social facts have
in common, how they
are repeated, and the
generalizations
THE EXPERIMENTAL TYPE
•Controlled observation
of change and
development
•Investigator seeks to
evaluate the influence
of a variable on the
subject/environment
Necessary procedures or elements in an
experimental situation:
1. Selection of two or more equivalent groups of
subjects
2. Independent variable -> aspect that the
experimenter controls
-> it is “independent” because it is not
affected by anything else in the
experiment
3. Dependent variable -> aspect that an
experimenter expects to change as a result
of experimental intervention
If people are anxious, then they
will want to be with other people
(Schacter, 1959)
•“Misery Loves Company”
•Hypothesis -> there is a potential
relationship between 2 variables:
ANXIETY & AFFILIATION
EXPERIMENT
1. Subjects were brought into a room
with an experimenter wearing horn-
rimmed glasses and a white lab
coat
2. He introduced himself as Dr. Gregor
Zilstein of the Dept of Neurology
and Psychiatry. He explained that
this was an experiment on “electric
EXPERIMENT
3. The subjects were split into two groups:
a. One group was shown elaborate
equipment and led to expect painful
shocks: “These shocks will hurt; they
will be painful. As you can guess, if in
this type of research, we’re to learn
anything at all that will help humanity,
it is necessary that our shocks be
intense.”
EXPERIMENT
3. The subjects were split into two groups:
b. The other group received instructions
leading them to believe that they
would feel no pain: “Do not let the
word “shock” trouble you; I am sure
that you will enjoy the experiment…It
will resemble more like a tickle or a
tingle than anything unpleasant.”
4. The group that expected pain was
more anxious than the one that did
not.
5. The experimenter explained that there
was a delay while the equipment was
being set up and asked the subjects to
indicate on the questionnaire whether
they preferred to wait for the next part
of the experiment alone, with other
subjects, or had no preference.
6. That was the end of the experiment
and the subjects were debriefed.
QUESTIONS: (ANXIETY & AFFILIATION)
1. What was the independent variable?
2. How did the experimenter control the
independent variable?
3. What was the dependent variable?
4. Give your hypothesis on what Schacter
was trying to prove.
5. Did the findings support the outcome?
THE PHILOSOPHICAL TYPE
•reflective thinking
•Seeks to produce
the widest
generalization
THE PROGNOSTIC TYPE
•Predict future
operation of factors
investigated so that
inevitable things
that must be done
may be controlled
more intelligently
(trends)
THE SOCIOLOGICAL TYPE
•study of all human
relationships
•purpose of
furnishing
recommendations
for their
improvement
THE CREATIVE RESEARCH
•Reflective thinking
in terms of aesthetic
values
•What is another
word for aesthetic?
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF
THE SERIOUSNESS
ATTRIBUTED TO
DISRUPTIVE CLASSROOM
BEHAVIORS
QUESTIONS:
1. What was being researched in this paper?
2. What type of research study did this team
employ?
3. What method did they use? What design
frame?
A Comparative Study of the
Seriousness Attributed to
Disruptive Classroom Behaviors
 AN ABSTRACT: A
summary of a longer
text, especially of an
academic article.
 A Comparative Study of the
Seriousness
Attributed to Disruptive Classroom
Behaviors
This paper presents a comparative
analysis of three samples of teachers
from Coimbra, Barcelona and Murcia
(Spain) that provides insight into the
importance teachers attach to disruptive
behavior and how different perspectives
and values affect their daily work
 A Comparative Study of the
Seriousness
Attributed to Disruptive Classroom
Behaviors
This research is framed within a
quantitative empirical-analytic design. It
is a descriptive study that compares the
data obtained from applying a
questionnaire to a sample of 146 school
teachers from elementary and
secondary education in three European
cities: Barcelona, Murcia and Coimbra.
 A Comparative Study of the
Seriousness
Attributed to Disruptive Classroom
Behaviors
This unobtrusive questionnaire was
developed by the authors to
minimize language distortions.
QUESTIONS:
4. What were the results? What were more
important for teachers to correct?
5. What is of the highest importance for the
teachers’ concern?
6. Who exhibit this type of value system more, men
or women teachers?
7. What is the relevance of this study to the current
society? Why do you think was it made?
 A Comparative Study of the
Seriousness
Attributed to Disruptive Classroom
Behaviors
Results consistently confirm the trend
proposed in the study’s hypothesis. In
general, inappropriate social behaviors
receive stronger ratings than behaviors
that hinder instruction.
 A Comparative Study of the
Seriousness
Attributed to Disruptive Classroom
Behaviors
Except in the case of disobedience,
which receives the highest score. Male
teachers tend to assign higher scores to
instruction-related behaviors than do
their female colleagues and there is a
trend toward stronger ratings for
instruction-related behaviors with
increasing years of teaching experience.
 A Comparative Study of the
Seriousness
Attributed to Disruptive Classroom
Behaviors
The teachers sampled in this study show
greater concern for the general social
transgressions that occur in the class
group, relegating disruptive behaviors to
positions of lesser importance, despite
their rigorously-demonstrated
implications in teaching-learning
processes.
 A Comparative Study of the
Seriousness
Attributed to Disruptive Classroom
Behaviors
Moreover, the variable years of experience
appears to exert a moderating effect on the
concern for inappropriate social behaviors,
nearly equating their seriousness with that
of instruction-related behaviors. This
leveling effect is observed more strongly
with male teachers than with their female
colleagues.
QUESTIONS:
1. What was being researched in this paper?
2. What type of research study did this team
employ?
3. What method did they use? What design
frame?
QUESTIONS:
4. What were the results? What were more
important for teachers to correct?
5. What is of the highest importance for the
teachers’ concern?
6. Who exhibit this type of value system more, men
or women teachers?
7. What is the relevance of this study to the current
society? Why do you think was it made?
TERMS USED IN RESEARCH

77
 Terms Used in Research
• Abstract - A brief (usually 50-100 words)
summary of the main ideas of an article.
Many scientific and educational journals
provide abstracts of articles along with
their bibliographies (or lists of books and
journal articles published each year).

78
 Terms Used in Research
• APA Style - The American Psychological Association's
style of listing authors, titles, and publishing
information in your references or works cited page.
Many disciplines in the social sciences, education, and
business have adopted the APA style.
• Bibliography - A listing of books and articles that were
published in a particular field. Most disciplines journals
that publish yearly bibliographies. These are organized
by subjects and keywords, to allow researchers to find
titles.
79
 Terms Used in Research
• Citation - A citation is a way of identifying where
a quote or an idea comes from. The general
requirement is that the citation must be complete
enough so that a researcher could use the
citation to find the original source. Citations are
written in conventional ways according to the
style being followed (such as MLA, APA, etc.).

80
 Terms Used in Research
• Primary Research - Research which is performed firsthand,
where you, as a researcher, gather the material yourself. This
might be done by an observation, a survey, an interview, a
case study, an experiment, or another kind of firsthand
experience with the topic you are researching. When you look
at materials that have not been analyzed by others, those are
primary materials. Some examples would be census data,
polls, stock market figures, or, in the case of research in the
humanities, a poem, novel, or play. In general, if the material
has not been analyzed by someone else, it is primary material.
81
 Terms Used in Research
• Secondary Research This is research done in
the library or on the internet, in which you read
the results of other people's research and
findings. Books about a subject and journal
articles are secondary materials, not because
they are less important than primary materials,
but because they discover ideas at "second
hand."
82
 BASIC TECHNIQUES
IN RESEARCH WRITING
DEFINITION

DESCRIPTION

CLASSIFICATION

ANALYSIS

CAUSATION

COMPARISON

CONTRAST

INTERPRETATION
84
• To give the meaning of a new term
• If the readers are about to encounter a
word for the first time, then that must be
‘defined’
• e.g: ‘somnambulist’ means sleepwalker
‘pachyderm’ means thick-skinned
‘podiatrist’ means a feet doctor

Definition
85
 Types of Definition
Formal or
1 Informal
definition 2 sentence
definition
3 Amplified
Definition
• also extended or
• is the • which expanded
synonym of includes • add’l sentences
that support the
the word species, formal definition
being genus, and • becomes the
defined differentia/e topic sentence of
the paragraph
86
 Formal/Sentence Definition
• species-the term defined
• genus-the class or kind which the term belongs
• differentia-distinguishing characteristics that
make the term different from other terms of the
same class
SPECIES = GENERA + DIFFERENTIAE

87
Formal/Sentence Definition Examples
• A somniloquist is a person who talks
while asleep.
• A sphygmomanometer is an instrument
used to measure blood pressure in an
artery that consists of a pressure gauge,
an inflatable cuff, and a pressure pump.
• A wadi is a steep-sided watercourse in dry
regions of North Africa and southern Asia
through which water flows only after heavy
rainfalls.
88
 Amplified Definition
1. Function – use of the thing defined
2. Location – placement/position of the thing
defined
3. Physical description –physical traits (color,
size, shape, etc.)
4. Further definition – definition of words in the
formal definition of the thing defined
89
 Amplified Definition
5. Causation – causes or effects of the thing
defined
6. Comparison – similarities of the thing defined
with another thing
7. Contrast – differences of the thing defines
from another thing
8. Exemplification - concrete
90
 Amplified Definition
9. Etymology – word derivation ; words from
which the thing defined was derived
10.Analysis – parts of the thing defined
11.Basic principle – Law or principle governing
the thing defined
12.Negation - Negative statements about the
thing defined
91
 Mechanism Description
• Part’s color • Method of
• Size or attachment
dimension • Relationship
• Shape with other
• Material parts
• Texture 92
 Mechanism Description
• Makes use of spatial or logical
order

93
 Mechanism Description
I. Introduction
A. Definition of the machine
B. Description of the machine
C. Function of the machine
D. Main parts of the machine
94
 Mechanism Description
II. Part-by-Part Description
A. Main part 1
1. Subpart 1
2. Subpart 2
B. Main Part 2
1. Subpart 1
2. Subpart 2 95
 Mechanism Description
III. Conclusion/Summary of Main
Parts
A. Operation of the machine
(by the user)
B. Operation by the machine
96
 Process Description
• Describes a series of steps,
stages or a series of actions
• Describes by chronological (time)
order
• Steps are sequential based on
the time of occurrence
97
 Process Description
I. Introduction
A. Definition of the process
B. Doer/Agent of the process
C. Purpose of the process
D. Point-of-view of the process
description
E. Main steps in the process 98
 Process Description
II. Body/Step-by-Step Description
A.Main Step 1
1. Substep 1
2. Substep 2
a. Sub-substep 1
b. Sub-substep 2
99
 Process Description
B. Main Step 2
1. Substep 1
2. Substep 2
III. Conclusion/Summary of the
Main Parts
100
 Analysis or Partitioning

• One specie or unit = analysis

• Unit is divided: elements,
components, constituents
• Several species = classification
• Several units divide: classes,
groups, kinds, types
101
 Analysis or Partitioning

1. Define the species to be

partitioned (classified)
2. Give the guiding principle or
basis for partitioning
(classification)
3. Use bases one at a time
102
 Analysis or Partitioning

4. Name all parts (classes) of the

species partitioned per basis
5. There must be no overlapping
parts
6. Name any subparts (subclasses)

103
 Classification
I. Introduction
A. Definition of the thing classified
B. Basis of classification
C. Main groups in the classification

104
 Classification
II. Body/Group-by-Group Description
A. Main group 1
1. Subgroup 1
2. Subgroup 2
B. Main group2
1. Subgroup 1
2. Subgroup 2
105
 Classification
III. Conclusion/Summary of Main
Points

106
 Other Techniques
• Comparison – when similarities
exist among different
groups/species
- may be literal or figurative
(analogy)
• Contrast – show differences
among items compared
- two patterns of contrast: block or 107
 Causal Analysis
• Explains causes and effects (causation)
• Aids comprehension
• Maybe represented in 5 different ways:
1. Single cause – single effect pattern
2. Single cause – multiple effect
pattern
3. Multiple cause – single effect
pattern 108
Single Cause – Single Effect Pattern

CAUSE

EFFECT
109
Single Cause – Multiple Effect Pattern

CAUSE

EFFECT EFFECT EFFECT

1 2 3
110
Multiple Cause – Single Effect Pattern

CAUSE CAUSE CAUSE

1 2 3

EFFECT
111
Multiple Cause – Multiple Effect Pattern

CAUSE CAUSE CAUSE

1 2 3

EFFECT EFFECT EFFECT

1 2 3
112
 Domino/Staircase Effect Pattern
EFFECT
CAUSE 4 4

EFFECT 3 death
CAUSE 3
AIDS
CAUSE 2 EFFECT 2 Transmissi
prostitutio on
EFFECT 1
n
CAUSE poverty
1
113
 Other Techniques
• Interpretation – art of informally
establishing a meaningful pattern of
relationships among a group of facts
• Usually found where tables and
graphs are presented
• Maybe: a) direct proportion,
b) inverse proportion, c) linear
relationships 114
OBSERVATIONS, FIELD NOTES,
AND WRITING
115
 Observations
• The purpose of an observation is to try to
understand a place, an event, or a behavior by
watching (and taking notes).
• After observing you can reflect (think about what
you have seen) and conjecture or hypothesize
(form ideas about what you have seen).
• From your observation you can draw inferences
about the place, event, or behavior that might
lead you to larger or more general conclusions
116
Two Types of Observations
• OBJECTIVE
– you try to keep separate, watching and hearing
what occurs--as if you were a camera or
microphone trying to record
• INVOLVED
– involved or participative observation lets you
take part in the place, event, or behavior
– (although a part of you might want to remain
objective, watching yourself as well as the event)117
 An Example
Let's say you wanted to research the ways
salespeople react to college students.
• An objective observation would have you
standing in a store (perhaps pretending to
shop) and watching as a college student
came into the store.
• An involved or participative observation
would have you (a college student) go into
the store and interact with the 118
 An Example
• The objective form can give you
more varied results
• The involved form (called in
anthropology "thick description")
can give you a richer, more
detailed personal set of internal
responses that you might not be
able to see from the outside. 119
 Things to Think About When
Making an Observation:
1. Plan in advance what you want
to look for (at least tentatively)
and how you will approach the
observation (objective or
involved)
2. Be willing to change or add new
things in the process of 120
 Things to Think About When
Making an Observation:
3. Record the observation on the
spot or as soon as possible after
the observation as you can
(memory is very short)

121
 Things to Think About When
Making an Observation:
4. Record as many details as you
can. Remember to use all of
your senses: sight, sound, smell,
taste, and touch.

122
 Things to Think About When
Making an Observation:
5. Soon after you have recorded
your observation, look back over
your record to see if there are
more details that could be added
6. When possible, check back to
see if you have recorded
correctly. 123
 Project
1. Observe a person in a place, a person
who is connected to that place. For
example, you might observe a waitress in
a restaurant or a teacher (or student) in a
classroom or a secretary at work in an
office.
2. Take notes on what you see and hear of
both the person and the place. 124
 Project
3. Then write a descriptive observation of the place and
person (about 300 words) in which you relate the
person to his or her environment (the place).
4. The descriptive observation should be typed, double
spaced, with an introduction and conclusion.
5. Staple your field notes to the observation. The field
notes must be included for the paper to be graded.

125
 Writing the Observation
• Formulate a thesis or an idea that
you could prove or exemplify from
the observation.

126
 Writing the Observation
It can be as simple as "Prof. Smith seems really
happy when he is able to make his students
smile," or "The waitress at the restaurant is
using some smart techniques to get bigger
tips," or "When my father works on his car, he
shows his anger in three ways, depending on
how frustrated he is."
127
 Writing the Observation
• Plan the rest of the introduction. Here
you will want to say, besides the
thesis, who is being observed and
where and when the observation is
taking place.

128
 Writing the Observation
• Choose an organization (usually an
organization by time will work here) and
decide which specific details you will
include. Try to appeal to as many sense
(sight, sound, smell, and so on) as
possible.

129
 Writing the Observation
• Write a draft of the observation.
• Revise the draft, adding specific
details—quoted words, for example,
or specific objects. For instance, "he
took a drink" is not as concrete or
realistic as "he popped the top of a
can of cold Dr. Pepper and took a big
slug, spilling some drops on his shirt." 130