Chapter 3

Determinants

3.1 The Determinant of a Matrix

3.2 Evaluation of a Determinant using
Elementary Operations
3.3 Properties of Determinants
3.4 Application of Determinants
3.1 The Determinant of a Matrix

the determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix:
 a11 a12 
A  
a a
 21 22 

 det( A)  | A |  a11a22  a21a12


Note:

 a11 a12  a 11 a 12
a  
 21 a22  a 21 a 22

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
Ex. 1: (The determinant of a matrix of order 2)

2 3
2( 2)  1(  3) 4  3 7
1 2
2 1
2( 2)  4(1) 4  4 0
4 2

0 3
0( 4)  2(3) 0  6  6
2 4


Note: The determinant of a matrix can be positive, zero, or negative.

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
Minor of the entry aij :
The determinant of the matrix determined by deleting the ith row
and jth column of A
a11 a12  a1( j  1) a1( j 1)  a1n
  
a( i  1)1  a( i  1)( j  1) a( i  1)( j 1)  a( i  1) n
M ij 
a( i 1)1  a( i 1)( j  1) a( i 1)( j 1)  a( i 1) n
   
a n1  an ( j  1) an ( j 1)  ann


Cofactor of aij :
Cij (  1) i  j M ij
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
Ex:
 a11 a12 a13 
A  a21 a22 a23 
 
 a31 a32 a33 
a12 a13 a11 a13
 M 21  M 22 
a32 a33 a31 a33

 C21 (  1) 21 M 21  M 21 C22 (  1) 22 M 22 M 22

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
Notes: Sign pattern for cofactors
     
     
     
      
   
   
   
     
     
         
       
  
     

3 × 3 matrix 4 × 4 matrix n ×n matrix


Notes:
Odd positions (where i+j is odd) have negative signs, and
even positions (where i+j is even) have positive signs.

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
Ex 2: Find all the minors and cofactors of A.
 0 2 1
A  3  1 2
 4 0 1 
Sol: (1) All the minors of A.
1 2 3 2 3 1
 M 11   1, M 12   5, M 13  4
0 1 4 1 4 0

2 1 0 1 0 2
M 21  2, M 22   4, M 23   8
0 1 4 1 4 1

2 1 0 1 0 2
M 31  5, M 32  3, M 33   6
1 2 3 2 3 1
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Sol: (2) All the cofactors of A.

 Cij ( 1) i  j M ij
1 2 3 2 3 1
 C11   1, C12  5, C13  4
0 1 4 1 4 0

2 1 0 1 0 2
C21   2, C   4, C23  8
4 1
22
0 1 4 1
2 1 0 1 0 2
C31  5, C 32  3, C33   6
1 2 3 2 3 1

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
Thm 3.1: (Expansion by cofactors)
Let A is a square matrix of order n.

Then the determinant of A is given by

n
(a ) det( A) | A | aij Cij ai1Ci1  ai 2Ci 2    ainCin
j 1

(Cofactor expansion along the i-th row, i=1, 2,…, n )

or
n
(b) det( A) | A | aij Cij a1 j C1 j  a2 j C2 j    anj Cnj
i 1

(Cofactor expansion along the j-th row, j=1, 2,…, n )

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
Ex: The determinant of a matrix of order 3
 a11 a12 a13 
A  a21 a22 a23 
 
 a31 a32 a33 

 det( A) a11C11  a12C12  a13C13

a21C21  a22C22  a23C23
a31C31  a32C32  a33C33
a11C11  a21C21  a31C31
a12C12  a22C22  a32C32
a13C13  a23C23  a33C33

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
Ex 3: The determinant of a matrix of order 3
 0 2 1
Ex 2

 C11  1, C12 5, C13 4

A  3  1 2 C21  2, C22  4, C23 8
 4 0 1  C31 5, C 32 3, C33  6
Sol:
 det( A) a11C11  a12C12  a13C13 (0)( 1)  (2)(5)  (1)(4) 14
a21C21  a22C22  a23C23 (3)( 2)  ( 1)( 4)  (2)(8) 14
a31C31  a32C32  a33C33 (4)(5)  (0)(3)  (1)( 6) 14
a11C11  a21C21  a31C31 (0)( 1)  (3)( 2)  (4)(5) 14
a12C12  a22C22  a32C32 (2)(5)  ( 1)( 4)  (0)(3) 14
a13C13  a23C23  a33C33 (1)(4)  (2)(8)  (1)( 6) 14

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
Ex 5: (The determinant of a matrix of order 3)
 0 2 1
A  3  1 2   det( A) ?
 4 0 1 
Sol:
11  1 2 12 3 2
C11 ( 1)  1 C12 ( 1) ( 1)( 5) 5
0 1 4 1
13 3 1
C13 ( 1) 4
4 0
 det( A) a11C11  a12C12  a13C13
(0)( 1)  (2)(5)  (1)(4)
14
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
Notes:
The row (or column) containing the most zeros is the best choice
for expansion by cofactors .


Ex 4: (The determinant of a matrix of order 4)

1  2 3 0
 1 1 0 2 
A   det( A) ?
0 2 0 3
 
 3 4 0  2

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Sol:
det( A) (3)(C13 )  (0)(C23 )  (0)(C33 )  (0)(C43 )
3C13
1 1 2
3( 1)13 0 2 3
3 4 2
 2 1 1 2 2 2  1 2 2 3  1 1 
3 (0)(  1)  (2)(  1)  (3)(  1) 
 4  2 3  2 3 4 
30  (2)(1)(  4)  (3)(  1)(  7)
(3)(13)
39

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
The determinant of a matrix of order 3:
Subtract these three products.
 a11 a12 a13  a11 a12 a13 a11 a12
A  a 21 a 22 a 23 a21 a22 a23 a21 a22
 a 31 a 32 a 33 a31 a32 a33 a31 a32
Add these three products.

 det( A) | A |a11a22 a33  a12 a23a31  a13a21a32  a31a22 a13

 a32 a 23 a11  a33a21a12

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
Ex 5:

–4 0 6
 0 2 1 0 2
A  3  1 2  3  1
 
 4  4 1 4  4
0 16 –12

 det( A) | A |0  16  12  ( 4)  0  6 2

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
Upper triangular matrix:
All the entries below the main diagonal are zeros.


Lower triangular matrix:

All the entries above the main diagonal are zeros.


Diagonal matrix:

All the entries above and below the main diagonal are zeros.


Note:
A matrix that is both upper and lower triangular is called
diagonal.

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
Ex:

 a11 a12 a13   a11 0 0   a11 0 0 

 0 a22 a23   a21 a22 0   0 a22 0 
 0 0 a  a a a   0 0 a 
 33   31 32 33   33 

upper triangular lower triangular diagonal

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
Thm 3.2: (Determinant of a Triangular Matrix)
If A is an n × n triangular matrix (upper triangular,
lower triangular, or diagonal), then its determinant is
the product of the entries on the main diagonal. That is

det( A) | A |a11a22 a33  ann

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
Ex 6: Find the determinants of the following triangular matrices.
 1 0 0 0 0
 2 0 0 0  0 3 0 0 0
 4 2 0 0 
(a) A   (b) B  0 0 2 0 0
 5 6 1 0  
 1  0 0 0 4 0
 5 3 3  0 0 0 0  2
Sol:

(a) |A| = (2)(–2)(1)(3) = –12

(b) |B| = (–1)(3)(2)(4)(–2) = 48

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Keywords in Section 3.1:

determinant : ‫المحدد‬

minor : ‫المختصر‬

cofactor : ‫المعامل‬

expansion by cofactors : ‫التحليل‬
‫بالمعامالت‬

upper triangular matrix: ‫مصفوفة مثلثية‬
‫عليا‬

lower triangular matrix: ‫مصفوفة مثلثية‬
‫سفلي‬

diagonal matrix:‫مصفوفة قطرية‬

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 3.2 Evaluation of a determinant using elementary operations

Thm 3.3: (Elementary row operations and determinants)
Let A and B be square matrices.

( a ) B rij ( A)  det( B )  det( A) (i.e. rij ( A)  A )

(b) B ri( k ) ( A)  det( B ) k det( A) (i.e. ri( k ) ( A) k A )

( c ) B rij( k ) ( A)  det( B ) det( A) (i.e. rij( k ) ( A)  A )

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
Ex:
1 2 3
A  0 1 4 det( A)  2
 
 1 2 1
4 8 12  0 1 4  1 2 3
A1  0 1 4  A2  1 2 3 A3   2  3  2
 1 2 1   1 2 1   1 2 1 

A1 r1( 4 ) ( A)  det( A1) det(r1( 4 ) ( A)) 4 det( A) (4)( 2)  8

A2 r12 ( A)  det( A2) det(r12 ( A))  det( A)  ( 2) 2

A3 r12(  2 ) ( A)  det( A3) det(r12(  2 ) ( A)) det( A)  2

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
Notes:
det(rij ( A))  det( A)  det( A)  det(rij ( A))
1
det(ri ( A)) k det( A)  det( A)  det(ri( k ) ( A))
(k )

k
det( rij( k ) ( A)) det( A)  det( A) det( rij( k ) ( A))

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Note:
A row-echelon form of a square matrix is always upper triangular.


Ex 2: (Evaluation a determinant using elementary row operations)

 2  3 10 
A  1 2  2  det( A) ?
 0 1  3

Sol:
2  3 10 1 2 2
r12
det( A)  1 2  2  2  3 10
0 1 3 0 1 3

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 1 2 2 ( 1 ) 1 2 2
r12(  2 ) r2 7
1
 0  7 14  ( 1)( 1
)0 1 2
7
0 1 3 0 1 3
(  1)
r23
1 2 2
 7 0 1  2 (7)(1)(1)( 1)  7
0 0 1

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
Determinants and elementary column operations


Thm: (Elementary column operations and determinants)
Let A and B be square matrices.

(a ) B cij ( A)  det( B )  det( A) (i.e. cij ( A)  A )

(b) B ci( k ) ( A)  det( B ) k det( A) (i.e. ci( k ) ( A) k A )

(c) B cij( k ) ( A)  det( B ) det( A) (i.e. cij( k ) ( A)  A )

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
Ex:
 2 1  3
A  4 0 1  det( A)  8
 0 0 2 

 1 1  3  1 2  3  2 1 0
A1  2 0 1  A2  0 4 1  A3  4 0 1 
 0 0 2   0 0 2   0 0 2
1
( ) 1 1
A1 c ( A)  det( A1) det(c1 ( A))  det( A) ( )( 8)  4
1
2 (4)

2 2
A2 c12 ( A)  det( A2) det(c12 ( A))  det( A)  ( 8) 8

A3 c23( 3 ) ( A)  det( A3) det(c23( 3 ) ( A)) det( A)  8

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
Thm 3.4: (Conditions that yield a zero determinant)

If A is a square matrix and any of the following conditions is true,

then det (A) = 0.

(a) An entire row (or an entire column) consists of zeros.

(b) Two rows (or two columns) are equal.

(c) One row (or column) is a multiple of another row (or

column).

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
Ex:

1 2 3 1 4 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 2 5 0 0 2 2 2 0
4 5 6 3 6 0 4 5 6

1 4 2 1 2 3 1 8 4
1 5 2 0 4 5 6 0 2 10 5 0
1 6 2 2 4 6 3 12 6

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
Note:

Cofactor Expansion Row Reduction

Order n Additions Multiplications Additions Multiplications

3 5 9 5 10

5 119 205 30 45

10 3,628,799 6,235,300 285 339

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
Ex 5: (Evaluating a determinant)
 3 5 2
A  2  4  1
 
  3 0 6 
Sol:  3 5 3 5 4
2 (2)
C13
det( A)  2  4  1  2  4 3
3 0 6 3 0 0
5 4
31
( 3)( 1) ( 3)( 1) 3
4 3
3 5 2 ( 54 )  3 5 2
r12

det( A)  2  4  1  52 0 53
3 0 6 3 0 6
2
5 3
3
5
(5)( 1) 12
( 5)( ) 3
3 6 5
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
Ex 6: (Evaluating a determinant)
 2 0 1 3  2
 2 1 3 2  1
A  1 0  1 2 3
 3  1 2 4  3
 1 1 3 2 0
Sol:

2 0 1 3 2 2 0 1 3 2
 2 1 3 2 1 2 1 3 2 1
det( A)  1 0  1 2 3 ( 1 0 1 2 3
r241)
3  1 2 4  3 r (  1) 1 0 5 6 4
1 1 3 2 0 25 3 0 0 0 1
2 1 3 2
(1)( 1) 22 1 1 2 3
1 5 6 4
3 0 0 1
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 8 1 3 2
8 1 3 0 0 5
(  3)
C41
8 1 2 3
 (1)( 1) 44  8  1 2  8 1 2
13 5 6 4 (1 )
r21

13 5 6 13 5 6
0 0 0 1

13 8 1
5(  1)
13 5
(5)(  27)
 135

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 3.3 Properties of Determinants

Thm 3.5: (Determinant of a matrix product)

det (AB) = det (A) det (B)


Notes:

(1) det (EA) = det (E) det (A)

(2) det( A  B ) det( A)  det( B )

(3)
a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13
a22  b22 a22  b22 a23  b23  a21 a22 a23  b21 b22 b23
a31 a32 a33 a31 a32 a33 a31 a32 a33

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
Ex 1: (The determinant of a matrix product)

 1  2 2 2 0 1 
A   0 3 2 B   0  1  2
 1 0 1   3 1  2

Find |A|, |B|, and |AB|

Sol:

1  2 2 2 0 1
| A | 0 3 2  7 | B | 0  1  2 11
1 0 1 3 1 2

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  1  2 2  2 0 1  8 4 1 
AB   0 3 2  0  1  2   6  1  10
 1 0 1   3 1  2  5 1  1 

8 4 1
 | AB | 6  1  10  77
5 1 1


Check:
|AB| = |A| |B|

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
Thm 3.6: (Determinant of a scalar multiple of a matrix)
If A is an n × n matrix and c is a scalar, then
det (cA) = cn det (A)

Ex 2:
 10  20 40 1 2 4
A  30 0 50 , 3 0 5 5
 
  20  30 10  2 3 1
Find |A|.
Sol:
 1  2 4 1 2 4

A 10 3 0 5   A 10 3
3 0 5 (1000)(5) 5000
 
  2  3 1 2 3 1
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
Thm 3.7: (Determinant of an invertible matrix)
A square matrix A is invertible (nonsingular) if and only if
det (A)  0

Ex 3: (Classifying square matrices as singular or nonsingular)
 0 2  1  0 2  1
A   3  2 1  B  3  2 1 
 3 2  1  3 2 1 
Sol:
A 0  A has no inverse (it is singular).

B  12 0  B has an inverse (it is nonsingular).

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
Thm 3.8: (Determinant of an inverse matrix)
1
If A is invertible, then det(A  1 )  .
det(A)

Thm 3.9: (Determinant of a transpose)
If A is a square matrix, then det( AT ) det( A).


Ex 4:
 1 0 3 1
(a) A ? (b) AT ?
A   0  1 2
 2 1 0
Sol:
1 0 3 1 1
 A 1  
 | A | 0  1 2 4 A 4
2 1 0 AT  A 4
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
Equivalent conditions for a nonsingular matrix:

If A is an n × n matrix, then the following statements are equivalent.

(1) A is invertible.

(2) Ax = b has a unique solution for every n × 1 matrix b.

(3) Ax = 0 has only the trivial solution.

(4) A is row-equivalent to In

(5) A can be written as the product of elementary matrices.

(6) det (A)  0

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
Ex 5: Which of the following system has a unique solution?

(a) 2 x2  x3  1
3 x1  2 x2  x3  4
3 x1  2 x2  x3  4
(b) 2 x2  x3  1
3 x1  2 x2  x3  4
3 x1  2 x2  x3  4

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Sol:
(a) Ax b
 A 0
 This system does not have a unique solution.
(b) Bx b
 B  12 0
 This system has a unique solution.

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 3.4 Applications of Determinants

Matrix of cofactors of A:
 C11 C12  C1n 
C C  C 
Cij   21 22 2n 
Cij ( 1) i  j Mij
   
 
 Cn1 Cn 2  Cnn 


Adjoint matrix of A:
 C11 C21  Cn1 
C C22  Cn 2 
adj ( A) Cij   12
T

   
 
 C1n C2 n  Cnn 

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
Thm 3.10: (The inverse of a matrix given by its adjoint)
If A is an n × n invertible matrix, then
1 1
A  adj ( A)
det( A)

Ex:
 a b
A  
 c d 
1 1
 det( A) ad  bc  A  adj ( A)
det A
 d  b 1  d  b
adj ( A)   
  c a  ad  bc   c a 

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
Ex 1 & Ex 2:
 1 3 2 (a) Find the adjoint of A.
A   0  2 1 
 1 0  2 (b) Use the adjoint of A to A 1
find
Sol:  Cij ( 1) i  j M ij
2 1 0 1 0 2
 C11  4, C12  1, C13  2
0 2 1 2 1 0
3 2 1 2 1 3
C21  6, C22  0, C23  3
0 2 1 2 1 0

3 2 1 2 1 3
C31  7, C 32  1, C33  2
2 1 0 1 0 2

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  cofactor matrix of A  adjoint matrix of A
 4 1 2  4 6 7
 
Cij  6 0 3 adj ( A) Cij 
T
 1 0 1 
 
 7 1 2  2 3 2

 inverse matrix of A
1
A 1  adj ( A)  det A 3
det A
 4 6 7  43 2 7
3 
13  1 0 1  13 0 1
   3

 2 3 2  23 1 3 
2


Check: AA 1 I
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
Thm 3.11: (Cramer’s Rule)
a11 x1  a12 x2    a1n xn b1
a21 x1  a22 x2    a2 n xn b2

an1 x1  an 2 x2    ann xn bn
 x1   b1 
x  b 
A aij nn  A(1) , A( 2 ) ,, A( n )  x  2  b  
2
Ax b
   
x  b 
a11 a12  a1n  n  n
a21 a22  a2 n
det( A)  0
   (this system has a unique
an1 an 2  ann solution)

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 
A j  A(1) , A( 2 ) ,  , A( j  1) , b, A( j 1) ,  , A( n ) 
 a11  a1( j  1) b1 a1( j 1)  a1n 
a  a2 ( j  1) b2 a2 ( j 1)  a2 n 
 
21

   
a an ( j 1)  ann 
 n1  an ( j  1) bn

( i.e. det( A j )  b1C 1 j  b 2 C 2 j    b n C n j )

det( A j )
 xj  , j 1, 2 ,  , n
det( A)

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
Pf:
A x = b, det( A) 0
1 1
 x A b  adj ( A)b
det( A)
 C11 C21  Cn1   b1 
  
1  C12 C22  Cn 2   b2 

det( A)       
  
 C1n C2 n  Cnn   bn 
 b1C11  b2C21    bnCn1 
b C  b2C22    bnCn 2 
1  1 12 

det( A)    
b C  b2C2 n    bnCnn 
 1 1n
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 1
 xj  (b1C1 j  b2C2 j    bnCnj )
det( A)
det( A j )
 j 1,2 ,, n
det( A)

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
Ex 4: Use Cramer’s rule to solve the system of linear equations.
 x  2 y  3z  1
2x  z  0
3x  4 y  4 z  2
Sol: 1 2 3 1 2 3
det( A)  2 0 1 10 det( A1 )  0 0 1 8
3 4 4 2 4 4
1 1 3 1 2 1
det( A2 )  2 0 1  15, det( A3 )  2 0 0  16
3 2 4 3 4 2
det( A1 ) 4 det( A2 )  3 det( A3 )  8
x  y  z 
det( A) 5 det( A) 2 det( A) 5
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Keywords in Section 3.4:

matrix of cofactors :‫مصفوفة المعامالت‬

adjoint matrix :‫مصفوفة مصاحبة‬

Cramer’s rule : ‫قانون كرامر‬

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