YASHWANTRAO CHAVAN POLYTECHNIC,

ICHALKARANJI

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Program Code : CE
Semester : Sixth
Course Title : Maintenance and Repairs of
Structures
Course Code : 22602
Faculty Name : Ms. G. S. Kavathekar
 Chapter 2
Causes & Detection of Damages -10M

CO.2 Test the structures to predict its stability.

 Chapter 2
Causes & Detection of Damages
Introduction
• From the past years it is observed that major damages to the
structures are due to the natural calamities.
• Main causes of damages in structures are is irregular planning,
faulty design, poor construction, foundation failure, extra
loads & unexpected failure modes or combination of these
causes.
• Hence, special attention should be given to avoid damages of
structural components
 Fig. a

Fig. b

Minor Cracks
Fig. c Developed cracks to the building
⮚ Causes of damages:
1. Distress:
• Distress is natural phenomenon and would appear in the
structure due to the wear and tear.
• Natural phenomenon in which structure subjected to stresses due
to wear & tear, poor workmanship, lack of maintenance,
atmospheric effects, accidents natural calamities, chemical
reactions, etc.
• Distress occurs due to lack of preventive measures i.e. Distress
is nothing but unwanted stresses produced in structure due to
change in behavior of structure.
• Different types of distress in concrete structures such as spalling
distress, crazing distress, alkali aggregate reaction distress,
shattered slab distress, corrosion distress, longitudinal distress,
D-cracking distress joint seal distress, etc.
Fig. d Different types of distress in concrete.
⮚ Causes of damages:
2. Earthquake:
• It is natural phenomenon, causes shaking of ground by sudden
release of energy from earth crust due to dislocation of crust,
earth movement, volcanic eruption or even man-made
explosion.
• This unpredictable disaster cause great distortion of property of
lives.
• It causes the shaking of ground & hence structures due to fixed
to ground subjected to motion at base.
• Damages due to EQ are ground shaking, structural failure,
surface rupture, ground displacement, landslides liquefaction,
tsunamis, fire, etc.
Fig. e Different types of
damages in structure due to
earthquake.
Fig. e Different types of damages in structure due to earthquake.
⮚ Causes of damages:
3. Wind:
• Wind disasters are responsible for tremendous physical
destruction, injury, loss of live & economic damage.
• Wind forces can break building's load path.
• There are two types of effects of wind such static & dynamic.
• Static load mainly leads to elastic bending & twisting of
structures & dynamic analysis required for skyscrapers, taller,
long span & slender structures.
• Extent of damages depends on speed of wind.
a. Winds between 47 mph up to 54 mph - Create light damage
b. Winds between 55mph to 63 mph - trees are uprooted &
structure damage
c. Winds over 60 mph - cause widespread damage to any size of
structure
⮚ Causes of damages:
4. Flood:
• Damage to building during floods not only the direct action of
flood wave & surface water but also changes in ground water
flow condition.
• The effect of flood is the damage of power transmission, loss of
power, loss of lives property damages, crops maintenance &
repairs.
• The cause of damage may be direct & indirect.
• Direct causes are - physical contact of flood water with humans,
property & objects.
• Indirect causes - networks & social activity causing disruptions
of traffic, trade, public services, etc.
Fig. f Damages due to flooding
⮚ Causes of damages:
5. Dampness:
• Water movement leads to cause moist in structure which is
referred as dampness.
• Dampness may be due to construction water, capillary action
from sub-soil, rainwater action, penetration of rainwater from
top, excess moisture, poor ventilation, no DPC, plumbing issues
etc.
• Due to dampness, moisture travels through walls & ceiling
which creates unsightly patches & effects aesthetic of building.
• Unwanted moisture enables growth of various fungi & moist
issues etc.
Fig. g Dampness
⮚ Causes of damages:
6. Corrosion:
• When metal reacts with another substance such as oxygen,
hydrogen, electric current, dirt & bacteria then metal get corroded.
• Corrosion is gradual destruction of materials
• Due to reinforcement corrosion, it leads to loss of cross sectional
area of steel bars, cracking of the concrete cover & damaging
effect on bond between steel bars & concrete.
• The main factors which promote corrosion of steel are presence of
moisture & least improper concrete cover.
Fig. h Corrosion
⮚ Causes of damages:
7. Fire:
• Fire damage not only destroys the property but it can also cause a
lot of bad odor.
• A fire spread to whole structure can cause unexpected damages to
the structural elements.
• Fire may cause degradation of structural materials, thermal
buckling & material yielding under small stress.
• According to the National fire Protection Association (NFPA),
most common causes of fire are cooking equipment’s, heating
equipment’s, electrical components, smoking materials, exposure
& internal fire setting.
⮚ Causes of damages:
8. Dilapidation:
• Dilapidation is the term used to denote decay & damage of
structure due to continuous negligence in maintenance & repairs
willingly.
• A building is dilapidated when it has underscored severe damage
due to decay of different members causing serious imbalance in
load transfer system.
• As a result external appearance becomes unpleasant look.
• If entire structure is considered unsafe, the building is to be
declared dilapidated in full & recommended for demolition.
⮚ Causes of damages:
9. Termite:
• Termites are small pale soft body's insects that feed on wood &
mostly found in places which are damp.
• Termites are small ants but they work together resulting to
damages in structures.
• Termite damage appears similar to water damage.
• It includes buckling wood, swollen floors & ceilings, slight water
damage.
• Best ways to get rid of termites is to apply termite-killing
products, spray boric acid.
Fig. I damages due to Termites
⮚ Systematic Approach of Damage Detection:
• The primary aim of damage detection is to know the extent & type
of damages with their root cause & remedial measures.
• Identify whether damage is structural or non-structural.
• For Structural damages, repairs are carried out to restore structural
stability to bear design load.
• In non-structural damages, repairs are undertaken for long term
durability & asthetic look.
• A systematic study of defects is necessary to overcome
deficiencies arising out of design, specification, construction &
other considerations.
• To investigate the damage detection in a systematic approach,
various steps are involved before repairs or maintenance are
undertaken as-
1. Preliminary investigation
2. Physical investigation
3. Material Testing
4. Non-destructive test
5. Detailed investigation
6. Study of available documents
7. Estimation of actual loads & environmental effects
8. Errors in design & construction
9. Retrospective analysis
10. Strengthening requirements
11. Relevant approaches to repair
1. Preliminary Investigation:
• In this, keep the deteriorated structure in undisturbed condition.
• Overall inspection & collecting photographic data
• Conducting interviews of concern people
• Discuss about environmental effects which lead to deterioration
on concrete structure.
2. Physical inspection:
• These are carried out visually & data collected from drawings,
specifications, interaction & discussion.
• It includes identification of visible structural & non-structural
damages, quality of construction, soil Condition & other non-
structural elements.
• Information obtained from this is nature of distress, type of
distress, extent of damages & its classification.
3. Material Testing:
• It is used to ascertain both physical & mechanical properties of raw materials &
component.
• It helps to understand whether a specific material is suitable for particular
application or not.
• Quality of material should be ensured by various tests as specified in IS codes.
• Damaged & un-damaged materials condition evaluated by physical, chemical &
other testing techniques.
4. Non-destructive:
• It is a method to obtain compressive strength & other properties of concrete from
existing structures.
• This provides immediate results & actual strength & properties of concrete
structure.
• This requires special knowledge & expert.
• NDT techniques are used to know concrete depth, bas diameter, bar location,
extent of steel corrosion, Chloride ions, permeability, defects in piles, defects in
metals etc.
• It contains rebound hammer test, ultrasonic pulse velocity test, pull-out test, pull-
off test, rebar locator, half-cell potential meter etc.
5. Detailed Investigation:
• Purpose of investigation is to explore in detail allegations,
examine evidence in depth.
• Construction drawings in which layout structural details & its
foundation are not available then detailed investigation have to
conduct total structural system.
• Correct identification of root causes require detailed information.
6. Study of Available Documents:
• These are in two forms – primary documents & secondary
documents.
• Primary documents are eye witness.
• Secondary documents are compiled by people who were not
present on spot but received information.
• Study available in documents helps in defining the unexpected
damages & crack propagations.
7. Estimation of Actual loads & Environmental Effects:
• Building can be vulnerable to climate change.
• In future there may be increase in risk of collapse & significant loss
of value as a result more storms, show or subsidence damage, water
encroachment, deteriorating indoor climate & reduce building
lifetime.
• When actual loads are different than design loads then expected
cracking & damage may occur.
8. Errors in Design & construction:
• Majority structural failures are due to errors in planning, design,
construction & utilization.
• It is necessary to check errors in design, detailing & construction.
• The causes of errors in construction are sudden change in cross-
section, inadequate structures connection, imperfect geometry, soil-
structure interaction, poor detailing of reinforcement, imperfect
compaction of concrete, early removal of centering, improper
placement of steel etc.
9. Retrospective Analysis:
• It is carried out as an Initial diagnosis to know whether structure will
be safe or not.
• In these actual loads, property, structural geometry material property
etc. are considered to know actual load carrying capacity instead of
normal design.
• This analysis is useful to decide whether the structure is safe or not,
if not then rehabilitation, repair, retrofitting, re-strengthening is
suitable or not.
10. Strengthening requirements:
• After above all process, identify causes of damages.
• Once the diagnosis is confirmed accurate remedial measures for
repair can planned accordingly so as to keep it in serviceable
condition.
• There are various methods to strengthen weak concrete such as
concrete jacketing, concrete replacement, retrofitting by steel
materials etc.
11. Relevant Approach to Repair:
• Once cause of damage confirmed then remedial measures for
repair can be planned appropriately.
• The repairs to structure or parts of structure need to be undertaken
in systematic way as
a) Inspection of building
b) Analyze on basis of inspection report, damage & decay
c) Diagnose root cause
d) Suggest remedial measures & prepare report
e) Approval of report by authority
f) Detailed quantity survey of items
g) Estimate
h) Work taken up & start tendering etc.
⮚ Various Aspects of visual observations for Detections of
Damages:
• Visual inspection is a common method of quality control, data acquition
& data analysis.
• The main purpose of this is to observe & note down all items of distress
or design deficiency.
• Various following aspects of visual observation for damage detection
should be undertaken from different eras are –
1. Verification of original drawings accuracy
2. Identification of major alterations
3. Identification of visible structural damages
4. Influence of crack width is uncertain
5. Identifying potential of non-structural falling hazards such as ceiling,
partitions, curtain walls etc.
6. Plaster crack which expose reinforcement that enhancing corrosion
7. Observe location of honey-combing
8. Identify outside plaster surface showing moss tree growth
9. Details about any deviations observed from original drawing to be
recorded
10. Observations w.r.t. Soil condition, sinking in floors, tiles in walls etc.
11. Locate leakages of sanitary & plumbing pipes at joints & damaged
positions.
12. Check leakages from sanitary unit.
13. Inspect abnormal loads pattern of loadings & deviations from design
loads.
14. Possible damages to common service areas.
15. Identify an unauthorized additions & alterations some areas of
structure
16. Visual inspection w.r.t. damages to paving, parking areas, compound
walls, gates, etc.
17. Check excessive voids in RCC, masonry quality, hollow portion etc.
18. Inspect adjoining structure & type.
Hence from above investigation, one can suggest appropriate technique of
repair.
⮚ Tests on Damaged Structure:
• Testing of damaged structure plays an important role in
controlling & confirming the quality of concrete work
• Two types of tests as destructive test & non-destructive test
Non-destructive test
• This method is used to obtain compressive strength & other
properties of concrete from existing structure.
• This test provides immediate results & actual strength &
properties of concrete structure.
• NDT methods are simple to perform but analysis & interpretation
of test results are not so easy.
• Require highly experienced & expertise.
• The purpose of NDT is to inspect component in safe, reliable &
cost effective without causing damage to structure.
Advantages
1. It is used to ascertain whether a component is in need of repair or
safe.
2. This is applicable to improve design & overall asset management.
3. No wastage of concrete
4. Member failure does not takes place
5. More popular for routine inspection of structure
6. It offers safety, reliability, reassurance & cost effective without
causing any damages.
Disadvantages
7. Advanced inspection techniques can be expensive.
8. Analysis & interpretation of test result is not so easy
9. Components need to be cleaned before & after inspection
10. Electricity supply is required for some tests
11. Some can affected by variations in magnetic permeability
12. Some tests are only effective on materials that are conductive
Importance of Non-destructive test:
1. These are used to evaluate concrete properties
2. Minor cracks in concrete structure can be evaluated & assessed
3. Used for evaluation of repair works.
4. Moisture content, density, thickness, chemical contents, pH measurement &
reinforcement status can be estimated
5. Used to evaluate behavior of concrete material without any damage
6. Ensure the efficiency & durability of structure
Various Non-destructive Testing Methods
7. Rebound concrete hammer test
8. Ultra-sonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) test
9. Rebar locator test
10. Crack detection micro-scope test
11. Chloride test
12. Sulphate attack test
13. pH measurement test
14. Half-cell potential metes test
1. Rebound concrete hammer test
• Aim of this test is to determine compressive strength of concrete,
uniformity & quality of concrete.
• The Schmidt rebound hammer is developed in 1948 which is commonly
used for measuring surface hardness.
• Consists of spring controlled mass known as hammer that slides on a
plunger
• When plunger is pressed against the concrete then hammer having constant
energy is made to hit the concrete surface to rebound back which referred
as operating principle of rebound concrete hammer as shown in fig.1.
• The measured distance travelled by hammer on a graduated scale is known
as rebound no or rebound no. or rebound index.
• c/s diameter of rebound hammer is shown in fig. 2
• This test can be conducted horizontally, vertically, downward or at any
intermediate angle.
• fig. 3 shows relationship between compressive strength of concrete &
rebound no.
• Compressive strength & rebound no. are directly proportion
Fig. 1 Cross-section of Rebound concrete hammer with
operating principle
Fig. 2 Schematic cross section of Rebound concrete hammer
Procedure
1. Check rebound hammer against test anvil before starting
2. Identify testing location
3. Identify point of impact at least 20mm away from the edge & mark the
same with marker.
4. Remove plaster & clean the target surface.
5. Keep the plunges firmly & pressed against concrete surfer
6. Press casing of hammer so that spring around the hammer will wind up
around the plunger.
7. Release dashpot button.
8. Based on resistance offered by surface, pointer on graduate scale will
move accordingly.
9. Measure reading on graduated scale as Rebound no.
10. Repeat above steps at least five times at same point
11. By considering influencing factors such as surface moisture condition,
test location, test direction etc. then correct rebound no. using graph in
fig.3.
12. Find out compressive strength of concrete against each rebound no.,
overall quality of concrete using table no. 1
13. Relation between compressive strength of concrete & rebound no
shows directly proportional.
Table no.1 Quality of concrete for different values of RN

Sr. No. Average Rebound No. Overall quality of

(RN) concrete
1 RN > 40 Very good
2 RN = 30 to 40 Good
3 RN = 20 to 30 Fair
4 RN < 20 Poor
5 RN = 0 Very poor or
delaminated
Advantages:
1. Simple procedure of testing & commonly adopted equipment
2. Quick & less expensive
3. Applicable to any surface of testing, i.e. horizontal, vertical or inclined
4. Used for determining compressive strength of concrete
5. Helps to find compressive strength of old monuments or guide to rehabilitate
the same
6. Dose does not require any calculation
7. Used to find concrete uniformity & quality
8. Price of rebound hammer is low as compared with any destructive type machine
Limitations:
9. Compressive strength of concrete gives approximate result
10. Result of this test are affected by many parameters such as nature of testing,
shape & size of specimen, moisture condition
11. Need to correlate rebound value to crushing strength value very precisely
12. Hammed should be pushed in right angle to surface otherwise shows wrong
result
13. Difficult to find if defects happened in rebound hammer
2. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test: (UPV Test)
• UPV test is in-situ, non-destructive test.
• Test used to check strength & quality of concrete, to estimate depth of cracks
in concrete, honeycombing.
• It consists of measuring the time of travelling by an ultrasonic pulse passing
through concrete which is to be tested.
• An ultrasonic pulse/ waves travels through a known distance & received to
other end as shown in fig.
Following attributes of test are outlined as –
• Relative higher velocity is obtained when quality of concrete is good
• When there is cracks, voids in concrete which comes in path of pulse transmission
then it passes around discontinuous path, making the path longer & required
travelling path becomes more as a result lower the velocity.
• Pulse velocity depends upon density & elastic modulus of concrete
• There are three ways of measuring pulse through concrete which are shown in fig.
• Direct transmission
• Indirect transmission
• Surface transmission
Fig. Schematic diagram of Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Testing Method
Fig. Direct Transmission Fig. Indirect Transmission

Fig. Surface Transmission

Procedure
1. Identify target concrete surface & clean it properly then define two end
points of application of ultrasonic pulse.
2. Apply acoustical coupling materials to both point of concrete.
3. Attach transmitter & receiver end of transducer to concrete surface.
4. Generate Ultrasonic waves of 50 to 60 kHz using ultrasonic pulse
generator.
5. Note down time of travel (T) in seconds.
6. Calculate Ultrasonic pulse velocity (v) of transmitted waves as V=L/T
in km/sec
7. Repeat all above steps at other location. Calculate average of ultrasonic
pulse velocity.
8. Determine overall quality of concrete by using table below.
Procedure

Table: Quality of concrete & approximate compressive strength with

grading for different values of pulse velocity (v)

Approximate
Pulse velocity (V)
Concrete quality Quality grading compressive
m/s
strength

V > 4500 Excellent I > 45

V = 3500 - 4500 Good II 25 – 40

V = 3000 – 3500 Medium III 10 – 20

V < 3000 Poor or doubtful IV < 10

Factors affecting an ultrasonic pulse velocity test-
• Quality of concrete
• Material quality & proportion of concrete mix
• Nature of concrete surface
• Influence of path length
• Moisture content & temperature of concrete
• Presence of reinforcing bar along path length
• Age of concrete
• Lateral dimension of specimen
3. Rebar Locator test:
• Rebar locator is an instrument used for detecting location of reinforcing bar,
concrete cover & rebar diameter using respective probes or accessories.
• Test is easier & fast.
• It is light weighted & portable instrument.
• The rebar locator is based on principle that presence of rebar affects the
electro-magnetic field.
• The signal received will increase with increase in bar size but decreases with
increasing cover of concrete.
• It is also known as cover gauge/ cover meter/ rebar identifier.
• Instruments profometer, pachometer & Fe depth meter along with accessories
such as spot probe, dia. probe of depth probe respectively
Procedure
1. Calibrate the rebar locator test apparatus
2. Identify test surface & mark target points
3. Clean test surface & make it smooth leveled
4. Take the rebar locator connected with path measuring device & spot
probe.
5. Mark the location of rebar of distance of rebar from surface shown by
display unit
6. Now attach diameter probe to rebar locator & keep probe parallel to
located bar
7. Observe appropriate number of readings & take mean value of these
readings as diameter of rebar.
8. Now attach depth probe to rebar locator & keep it exactly over
identified bas location.
9. Note down depth of concrete cover after getting an audio signal i.e.
beep sound & detected concrete cover.
Factors affecting the test results:
• Arrangement of reinforcement & metal ties
• Variation in iron content of cement
• Use of Aggregate with magnetic properties
• Binding wire, close spacing of bars etc.
• Setting of bar diameter during cover measurement
• Different measurement probes & their settings
• Variations in properties of steel
• Roughness of surface
Significance of rebar locator test:
• Hitting rebar may destroy drilling instrument
• Instrument will quickly & accurately determines location of reinforcing bar.
• Measurement of concrete cover, bar diameter & bar position is very
important.
• Cover depth is important to implement durability standards to structure
under consideration
• Reinforcement detailing is essential as it offer ductility & tensile strength to
concrete
• Knowing all information is important where drawings are not available.
• Identification of rebar location is essential to avoid cutting of bar.
4. Crack detection microscope test:
• It is process of detecting cracks along with their width & depth.
• The eye piece scale can be turned through 3600 to align with direction of
crack.
Following advantages of crack detection microscope are-
• Easy operation & low maintenance
• Gives accurate & specific result
• Due to presence of adjustable light source, this has better & clear view for
cracks.
• Gives very accurate crack width of concrete
• Magnification factor of microscope is 50
• It work with batteries
5. Chloride test:
• Chloride test is used to know chloride content in concrete.
• Chloride cause severe corrosion steel reinforcement.
• It is done with chloride test apparatus
• Total chloride content in concrete mix should not exceed 0.35% by weight of
cement in the mix.
• Methods to measure chloride content-
• Volhard volumetric titration test method
• "Quantab" chloride titration test method
Chloride test apparatus include the followings-
• Chloride & temperature combination electrode with cables & Connectors
• Electronic meter with circuit
• Accessory pack include spray bottle of distilled water electrode wetting
solution, dust collection pan, clamp, anchors, drill bit, scales, instruction &
briefcase.
6. Sulphate attack:
• It is form of chemical attack.
• In this reaction between sulphate ions in pore solution of concrete &
ingredients of concrete occurs.
• Sulphate can attack on concrete by reacting hydrated compounds of the
hydrated cement.
• It can cause expansion, cracking strength loss, spalling & disintegration of
concrete.
• Use of fly ash, slag cement, silica fume & metakolin can reduce expansion &
damages due to sulphate attack.
Remedies against sulphate attack:
• Use concrete with low permeability, cement with low C3A content & blends of
PC with pozzolona.
• Consuming Ca(OH)2 through use of pozzolona
• Using cement with low calcium aluminate
• Protective lining or coatings applying
7. pH measurement:
• It is important to indicate the alkalinity level of concrete.
• The most severe concrete damages are caused by dropping alkalinity level.
• It is defined as negative logarithm of hydrogen ion (H+) concentration.
• pH scale ranges from 0 to 14 in which a pH 7 is considered as neutral. pH less
than 7 are acidic whereas pH greater than 7 are alkaline.
Procedure:
• Clean surface using wire brush.
• Collect 0.5g of concrete powder.
• Mix powder with 10 to 12 drops of fresh distilled water with flat plastic stirrer
& let's stand for 60 seconds.
• Insert a pH strip into mixture & compare strip to the color chart to determine
pH value.
• Note temperature of concrete surface.
From the past study, following observations are recommended -
• High pH value greater than 11.50 & very low chloride content then no
corrosion occurred.
• High pH value & high chloride content then corrosion prone.
• Low pH value & high chloride content then highly corrosion prone.
8. Half-cell Potential Meter:
• It is the only corrosion monitoring technique.
• It is used to determine the probability of corrosion within rebar.
• It provides indicator of corrosion level.
• The name half-cell derives from the fact that one half of the battery cell is
considered to be reinforcing bar & surrounding Concrete.
• The electrical potential of a point on the surface of steel reinforcing bar can
be measured by comparing its potential with that of known copper sulphate
reference electrode on the surface.
• Practically this is achieved by connecting wire from one terminal of
voltmeter to the rebar as shown in fig.
Fig. Half-cell potential meter
Procedure:
• Identify rebar location.
• Make connect with reinforcement.
• Prepare concrete surface wet in condition.
• Measure potential difference at regular interval on different points along the bar
length
• Draw the graph of potential verses location
• Graph itself gives idea of corrosion & its location also.
Table: Half-cell potential and probable corrosion relation
Advantages:
• This method is suitable for in-situ evaluation, research & development work.
• Applicable to members irrespective of their age
• It may be used at any time during life of structure.
• It is inexpensive & simple to perform.
• Whole structure is quickly surveyed
• Used to indicate the corrosion activity
• Probability of Corrosion can be identified.
Disadvantages:
• The result obtained by this test is not considered as mean for estimating
structural properties of steel.
• Experienced technical expert is required
• Limited potential information between 220 MV & 350MV will be obtained
from this fest.
• No information & corrosion rate of reinforcing bars will obtain
• This test should be taken only on free concrete Surface
• This test examines only a specified portion of affected reinforcement.
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