Colligative

Properties and
Thermodynamics
to:
1. Calculate boiling point elevation and freezing point
depression from the concentration of a solute in a
solution (STEM_GC11PPIIId-f-117);
2. Calculate molar mass from colligative property data
(STEM_GC11PPIIId-f-118);
3. Describe laboratory procedures in determining
concentration of solutions (STEM_GC11PPIIId-f-119);
4. Explain the first law of thermodynamics
(STEM_GC11TCIIIg-i-124);
5. Explain enthalpy of a reaction (STEM_GC11TCIIIg-i-
125);
6. Calculate the change in enthalpy of a given reaction
using Hess Law (STEM_GC11TCIIIg-i-127)

2
Colligative Properties
and Determination of
Molar Mass of
Solutions
LESSON 3.1
Activity 3.1.1. Find me! Locate the words associated with
colligative properties in the grid. The words can be running in
horizontal, vertical and diagonal directions.
R W E L E C T R O L Y T E G G
1.________________ V A N T S F G O A T S A G A W

2.________________ F B M I M A S S A Y B A T H F
F O G M I L I A O R G K I R R
3.________________
P I E N O M O L A L I T Y F E
4.________________ H L T S I N L S I A V N V E E
5.________________ K I J V A N T H O F F E K A Z
6.________________ G N A F S O L U T E O Y N R I
7.________________ D G F A O Q E M G H A M A T N
8.________________ E A T S L C I P E A P E R C G
K A D Y U E Y H A R P S A R C
9.________________
U B L E T C H B U N N Y F A T
10._______________ C O L L I G A T I V E R Y M E
A T T A O D E G R E A S E R S
R A C I N F G J E F T S D W Q
4
Colligative property
- refers to the property of the solution that
depends on the number of solute particles
present.
- Colligative properties of solutions include
freezing point depression and boiling
point elevation. There are more colligative
properties like osmotic pressure and
vapor pressure lowering.
5
 Colligative Properties of
Nonelectrolyte and Electrolyte
Boiling Point Elevation of Nonelectrolyte Solution
Solutions
 liquid boils when its vapor pressure is equal to its
atmospheric pressure (1.01 x 105 Pa).
 The normal boiling point of a liquid is the temperature
at which its vapor pressure is 1.01 x 105 Pa.
 If the vapor pressure decreases in a nonelectrolyte
solution, the boiling point of the solution tends to
increase.
 to reach the 1.01 x 105 Pa vapor pressure, the solution
must be boiled at a temperature higher than the
normal boiling point temperature of the pure solvent.

6
Boiling Point Elevation of Nonelectrolyte Solution
The increase in the boiling point temperature is called boiling
point elevation (∆Tb). To determine the boiling point elevation of
a solution, we will have to use equation 3.1.1,
∆Tb = Kbm (equation 3.1.1)
Where:
Kb = molal boiling point elevation constant
m = molality of the solute in the solution.
Molality is used in this equation since it relates to mole fraction
and, thus, particles of solute and temperature do not affect it.
On the other hand, the boiling point of a solution can be
determined using equation 3.1.2,
Tb(solution)= Tb(solvent)+ ∆Tb (equation 3.1.2)
where:
Tb(solution) = boiling point of solution,
Tb(solvent) = boiling point of pure solvent
∆Tb = boiling point elevation.
7
Example 3.1A:
Sucrose (C12H22O11, 342 g/mol), like many sugars, is
highly soluble in water; almost 1500 g will dissolve in
1000 g of water, giving rise to what amounts to pancake
syrup. Using Kb of 0.514 K/mol*Kg, estimate the boiling
point elevation of such a sugar solution.

Given:
Molar MassC12H22O11 = 342 g/mol
MassC12H22O11 = 1500 g
Volumewater = 1000 g = 1Kg
Kb = 0.514 K/mol*Kg

Unknown: Boiling point elevation (∆Tb)

Equation: ∆Tb = Kbm
molality = (equation 3.1.3)
8
Solution: Since, we are given the molar mass and mass
of the sucrose, let’s get the number of moles of
sucrose.
Number of moles = (equation 3.1.4)
Number of moles of sucrose =
Number of moles of sucrose = 4.39 mol

solve for the molality of the solution using equation

3.1.3.
molality (m) =
molality (m) =
molality (m) = 4.39 mol sucrose/kg
water

9
Calculate the boiling point elevation:

∆Tb = Kbm
∆Tb = (0.514 K/mol*Kg)(4.39 mol
sucrose/kg water)
∆ Tb = 2.25K

Therefore, the boiling point elevation

of the sugar solution is 2.25 K.

10
 Colligative Properties of
Nonelectrolyte and Electrolyte
Solutions
Freezing Point Depression
 temperature at which its vapor pressure equals
that of the pure solvent, that is, when solid
solvent and liquid solution are in equilibrium.
 The freezing point depression (∆Tf) occurs
because the vapor pressure of the solution is
always lower than that of the solvent, so the
solution freezes at a lower temperature; that is,
only at a lower temperature will solvent particles
leave and enter the solid at the same rate.

11
 f f f
3.1.5)

Because Tf° >Tf, ∆Tf is a positive quantity.

Again, ∆Tfis proportional to the concentration of the
solution:
∆Tf α m
∆Tf = Kfm (equation
3.1.6)

where:
∆Tf = freezing point depression,
m = concentration of the solute in
molality units,
Kf = the molal freezing-point
depression constant.
The Kf of water is 1.86 °C*Kg/mol.

12
Example 3.1B:
Calculate the mass of ethylene glycol (formula mass =
62.1 g/mol), an antifreeze component, that must be
added to 5.0 L of water to produce a solution that
freezes at -18.3°C. Assume that the density of the
water is exactly 1 g/mL.

Given:
Kf = 1.86 °C*Kg/mol
Tf = -18.3 °C
Molar massethylene glycol = 62.1 g/mol
Densitywater = 1 g/mL
Volumewater = 5.0 L

Unknown: Mass of ethylene glycol

13
Solution:
The approach in answering this kind of problem is
the same with the previous problem. It just differs
slightly since this time, it’s the mass that is being
asked.

∆Tf =Tf° - Tf
∆Tf = 0 °C – (-18.3 °C)
∆Tf = 18.3 °C

solve for the molality, we can use this equation and

transpose it.
∆Tf = Kfm
m=
m=
m = 9.84 mol/Kg
14
solve for the mass of the ethylene glycol by substitution.
Number of moles of ethylene glycol = molality (Volume of
water)(density of water)(
Number of moles of ethylene glycol = 9.84 mol/Kg (5000 mL)
(1
Number of moles of ethylene glycol = 49.2 mol

get the mass of a substance by simply multiplying the number

of moles of the substance and its molar mass.
Massethylene glycol = 49.2 mol (62.1 g/mol)
Massethylene glycol = 3.05 x 103 g = 3.05kg

Therefore, the mass of ethylene glycol, an antifreeze component, is

3.05 Kg.

15
 The study of colligative properties of
Colligative Properties
electrolytes requires of different
a slightly
Electrolyte
approach than Solution
the one used for the colligative
properties of nonelectrolytes. The reason is
that electrolytes dissociate into ions in
solution, and so one unit of an electrolyte
compound separates into two or more
particles when it dissolves.
 For example, electrolyte solution such as
sodium chloride dissociates into two ions –
Na+ and Cl-. A van’t Hoff factor (i) must be put
into the previous equations involving the
colligative properties of nonelectrolytes to
account this effect.

16
The van’t Hoff factor establishes the relationship
between the number of moles of solute dissolved and
the moles of particles in a solution. This factor is given
by,

i= (equation 3.1.7)
Where:
the i value for an electrolyte with an AB empirical
formula is 2, whereas for AB2, i is 3.
Thus, i should be 1 for all nonelectrolytes.
For strong electrolytes such as NaCl and KNO3, i should
be 2, and for strong electrolytes such as Na2SO4 and
CaCl2, i should be 3.

17
Table 2.1 shows the experimentally measured values of i and
those calculated assuming complete dissociation. As you can
see, the agreement is close but not perfect, indicating that the
extent of ion-pair formation in these solutions at that
concentration is appreciable.

Table3.1.1. The van’t Hoff Factor of 0.0500 M Electrolyte Solutions

at 25 degrees Celsius
In calculating the colligative properties of electrolytes, such as
boiling point elevation and freezing point depression, i is
integrated. The general equation now becomes,
∆Tb = iKbm equation 2.1.8
∆Tf = iKf m equation 2.1.9
18
Determine the freezing and boiling point of a solution
prepared by dissolving 85.40 g of calcium chloride (CaCl 2) in
200 g of water (H2O).

Given:
Masscalcium chloride = 85.40 g
Masswater = 200 g
Molar MassCaCl2 =110.98 g/mol
Kf = -1.86
Kb = 0.512

Take note that CaCl2 dissociates into 3 ions, 2 ions for

Chlorine and 1 ion for Calcium as given in the reaction
below.
CaCl2​(aq)→Ca2+(aq) +2Cl−(aq)
Unknown: Tf and Tb

19
calculate for the moles of CaCl2. We can do this
by dividing the mass of the CaCl2 to its molar
mass.
Number of moles =
Number of moles =
Number of moles = 0.770 mol CaCl2
solve for the molality of the solution using
equation 2.1.3.
molality (m) =
molality (m) =
molality (m) = 3.85 mol/Kg

20
Using equations 2.1.8 and 2.1.9, we can consecutively
solve for ∆Tb and ∆Tf.
∆Tb = iKbm
∆Tb = 3 (0.512 (3.85 mol/Kg)
∆Tb = 5.91

∆Tf = iKfm
∆Tf = 3 (-1.86 (3.85 mol/Kg)
∆Tf = -21.48
Since the normal boiling point of water is 100 using
equation 3.1.2 for boiling point and 3.1.5 for freezing point,
we must add the calculated ∆Tb to 100 to get the new boiling
point of the solution.
Therefore, the new boiling point is 105.91. On the other
hand, since the normal freezing point of water is 0 , the new
freezing point is still -21.48

21
 Using Colligative Properties to
Find Solute Molar Mass
 The colligative properties of nonelectrolyte
solutions provide a means of determining the
molar mass of a solute. We learned that each
colligative property is proportional to solute
concentrations. Thus, by measuring the
property we can determine the amount (mol)
of solute particles and with a given mass, the
molar mass can be calculated.

22
Example 3.1D:
The addition of 250 mg of naphthalene in benzene elevated
the boiling point of 100 g of benzene by 0.05°C at 1.01 x 10 5
Pa. Calculate the molar mass of naphthalene molecules.
Benzene has a boiling point of 80.1°C and the Kb for benzene
is 2.53 °C*Kg/mol.

Given:
MassNaphthalene = 250 mg = 0.250 g
MassBenzene = 100 g
∆ Tb = 0.05°C
Pressure = 1.01 x 105 Pa
Tb = 80.1°C
Kb = 2.53 °C*Kg/mol

Unknown: Molar Mass of naphthalene molecules

23
Solution:
transpose the equation and get the value for
molality
∆Tb = Kbm

m=
m=
m = 0.020

24
 find the number of moles of naphthalene in the solution.
Molality (m) =
Number of moles of naphthalene = molality (mass of
solvent)
Number of moles of naphthalene = (0.020 mol/kg)(0.100
kg)
Number of moles of naphthalene = 1.98 x 10-3 mol

Molar mass =
Molar mass =
Molar mass = 128g/mol

The molecular formula of naphthalene is C10H8

and its molar mass is 128 g/mol

25
Laboratory Procedures
in Determination of
Solution’s
Concentration
LESSON 3.2
In performing chemical experiments
across the world, the most important
procedure is preparing a solution.
 Determine the concentration of the
solution
 Recall that a solution is made up of a
substance dissolved in liquid.
 “Safety first” personal protective
equipment (PPE) should be complete
and appropriate.
 Determine the moles of the solute you
27 will need in order to achieve the desired
 In an aqueous solution, the solvent to
be used is water. In measuring the
volume of the water, you can use the
graduated cylinder. Most of the time,
it is roughly ¾ of the final volume of
the solution. It is also highly
recommended to use purified water
rather than tap water to avoid
contamination and compromising the
quality of the solution.
28
 After measuring the volume of
the solvent to be used, you can
then transfer it to a beaker
which contains a stir bar. The
weighed solute can then be
added to the purified water.
Heating and stirring the solution
is also recommended upon
29
mixing to make the process of
 Starting with a Solid Solute
Procedure
1. Determine the mass in grams of one mole of solute, the
molar mass (MM).
2. Decide volume of solution required, in liters, V.
3. Decide molarity of solution required, M.
4. Calculate mass (M) in grams of solute (g) required using
equation 3.2.1,
Mass = MM x M x V (equation 3.2.1)
Example: Prepare 800 mL of 2 M sodium chloride.
MMNaCl = 58.45 g/mol
MNaCl= 58.45 g/mol (2 mol/L)(0.8 L)
MNaCl = 93.52 g NaCl

30 Therefore, you must dissolve 93.52 g of NaCl in about

 Preparation of Solution
Solution 1: Using percentage by
weight (w/v)
Formula
The formula for weight percent (w/v)
is: [Mass of solute (g) / Volume of solution
(ml)] x 100
Example
A 10% NaCl solution has ten grams of
31
sodium chloride dissolved in 100 ml of
 Procedure
Weigh 10g of sodium chloride. Pour it
into a graduated cylinder or volumetric flask
containing about 80ml of water. Once the
sodium chloride has dissolved completely
(swirl the flask gently if necessary), add
water to bring the volume up to the final
100 ml.
Caution: Do not simply measure 100ml of water and
add 10g of sodium chloride. This will introduce error
because adding the solid will change the final volume
32 of the solution and throw off the final percentage.
 Solution 2: Using percentage by
volume (v/v)
When the solute is a liquid, it is
sometimes convenient to express the
solution concentration as a volume percent.
Formula
The formula for volume percent (v/v)
is: [Volume of solute (ml) / Volume of
solution (ml)] x 100
Example
33 Make 1000ml of a 5% by volume
 Procedure
1. Express the percent of solute as a
decimal:
5% = 0.05
2. Multiply this decimal by the total
volume:
0.05 x 1000ml = 50ml (ethylene glycol
needed)
3. Subtract the volume of solute
(ethylene glycol) from the total solution
34
 4. Dissolve 50ml ethylene glycol in a
little less than 950ml of water. Now
bring final volume of solution up
to 1000ml with the addition of more
water. (This eliminates any error
because the final volume of the
solution may not equal the calculated
sum of the individual components).
So, 50ml ethylene glycol / 1000ml
35
solution x100 = 5% (v/v) ethylene
 Solution 3: Molar Solutions
Molar solutions are the most useful in
chemical reaction calculations because
they directly relate the moles of solute to
the volume of solution.
Formula
The formula for molarity (M) is: moles
of solute / 1 liter of solution or gram-
molecular masses of solute / 1 liter of
solution.
36
 Examples
The molecular weight of a sodium
chloride molecule (NaCl) is 58.44, so one
gram-molecular mass (=1 mole) is 58.44
g. We know this by looking at the periodic
table. The atomic mass (or weight) of Na is
22.99, the atomic mass of Cl is 35.45, so
22.99 + 35.45 = 58.44.
If you dissolve 58.44g of NaCl in a final
volume of 1 liter, you have made a 1M
37
NaCl solution, a 1 molar solution.
 Procedure
To make molar NaCl solutions of other
concentrations dilute the mass of salt to
1000ml of solution as follows:
0.1M NaCl solution requires 0.1 x 58.44 g of
NaCl = 5.844g
0.5M NaCl solution requires 0.5 x 58.44 g of
NaCl = 29.22g
2M NaCl solution requires 2.0 x 58.44 g of
NaCl = 116.88g
38
 Procedure in Making a Solution

Fill
Transfer
volumetric
the solid to
Weigh flask with
the
the solid deionized
volumetric
or distilled
flask
water

Add more Label the

deionized flask with
Stir until
the
the solid is or distilled correspondi
dissolved water until ng solution's
the mark name

39
 THERMOCHEMIS
TRY
Thermodynamics
 THERMODYNAMICS
• The term thermodymanics is derived
from the Greek word “thermes”
which means heat and “dynamo”
which means power.
• Thermodynamics will provide
guidelines that will enable us to
understand the energetics and
directions of reactions.

41
 THERMOCHEMISTRY
• Is a part of a broader subject
called thermodynamics, which is
the scientific study of the
interconversion of heat and
other kinds of energy.

42
The law of conservation of energy .
ENERGY CAN
NEITHER
Energy BE
may be transformed from one
form to another and an energy lost by the
CREATED
system NOR
must be gained by the
DESTROYED.
surroundings, and vice versa.

Energy can also be transferred back and

forth between the system and the
surroundings in the form of heat and
work.
43
 ENERGY AND CHEMISTRY

All of thermodynamics depends on the law of

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY.

The total energy is unchanged in a chemical

reaction.

If PE of products is less than reactants, the

difference must be released as KE.
44
 WORK
 Is defined as the forced applied
over a given distance .
 It is the energy transfer
between a system and the
surroundings due to a force
acting through a distance.
 Work may be done by the
system or done on the system.
 Work = force applied X Δdistance
45
 Internal
Energy, ΔE

46
 Internal Energy, E
 The energy contained within the
system.
 The sum of the kinetic and
potential energy
of all the components of the
system.
 The ΔE = EB – EA
 A positive ΔE means that energy
was gained from the
47
surroundings.
 A schematic representation of heat Q,
and work, on the system and
surroundings

48
 Internal Energy, E of a chemical
system depends on
 number of particles
 type of particles
 Temperature
The higher the T the
higher the internal energy
So, use changes in T
(∆T) to monitor changes in
49
E (∆E).
 Example:

A system receives 450kJ

of heat from its
surroundings and
surroundings do 50.0kJ of
work on the system What
is the change in internal
energy?
50
Enthalpy, H

51
 Enthalpy, H
 From the Greek word,
enthalpein, meaning “to
warm” refers to the energy
transferred under constant
pressure.
 Enthalpy, H is equal to the
amount of heat flow in a
system with constant
52 pressure Qp.
 Enthalpy, H
 For reactions that occur
in an open container, at
constant pressure, ΔH
is equal to the
difference in enthalpy
between the final and
initial states of the
53 system:
 Enthalpy, H
 Enthalpy change,ΔH , that
accompanies reaction is called
heat of reaction.
 This is the net energy resulting
from the breaking and the
making of bonds.
 It represents heat absorved or
evolved when reactants are
converted into products, at
54 constant pressure.
 Enthalpy, H
 The sign ΔH indicates the
direction of heat transfer.
endothermic: q = ΔH˃0 ;
Hproducts ˃Hreactants
(+)
exothermic: q = ΔH˂0;
Hproducts ˂ Hreactants
55
Thermochem
ical Equation

56
 Thermochemical Equation
 Is a balanced equation in
which the value of ΔH, with
the appropriate sign, is
usually written at the right
side.
 Shows whether a substance
is a solid, liquid, gas or
aqueous, while the
57 coefficients represents the
 Thermochemical Equation

58
 Example:
 The conversion of methyl alcohol
to carbon monoxide and
hydrogen.
CH3OH(g) → CO(g) + 2H2(g) ΔH =
+90.7kJ

 Formation of hydroflouric acid

from hydrogen and flourine.
59 H2(g) + F2(g) → 2HF(g) ΔH =
 EXAMPLE:
 Combustion of acetone, C3H6O (molar
mass=58g/mole).
C3H6O(l) + 4O2 (g) → 3CO2 (g) +
3H2O(l) ΔH=-1790kJ
1 mole of acetone in the presence of 4
moles of oxygen gas releases 1790kJ of
heat
1 mole C3H6O = 1790kJ
2moles C3H6O = (2)1790kJ
60 Since 1 mole C3H6O has a mass of 58g
CALORIMETRY

61
 Calorimetry
 Is concerned with the
measurement of heat changes or
heat flow in a chemical reaction.
Calorimeter
The device used to measure heat
changes.
When the system absorbs or
evolves heat its temperature
changes.
62 The improvised calorimeter in
 Calorimetry
The heat evolved is equal in
magnitude to the heat
absorved. The heat transferred
is called the heat of reaction.
-qreaction = qsolution
Assuming the solution is
relatively dilute and can be
regarded as predominantly
63
water the amount of heat
 where:
q is the amount of heat
absorbed
c is the specific heat of water
since the solution is fairly dilute
(c = 4.18J/g-oC or C = 1 cal/g-oC )
m is the mass of the solution in
grams (essentially mass of water)
ΔT is the change in temperature
(tfinal-tinitial) in oC
64
 HEAT CAPACITY, C
- Is defined as the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of
1 mole of a substance by 1oC.
SPECIFIC HEAT , c
- Is the amount of heat needed to
raise the temperature of 1 gram of
a substance by 1oC.

65
 Molar heat of reaction, ΔH is
calculated using the
equation

ΔH = qreaction
no. of moles, n

66
 Standard
Enthalpy of
Formation and
Reaction

67
 Standard Enthalpy of Formation
and Reaction

 Enthalpy of formation or heat

formation, ΔHf
- is defined as the enthalpy
change when a substance is
formed from its constituent
elements.

68
 Standard Enthalpy of Formation
and Reaction
Standard state is a specified
condition for a thermochemical
data where the value of any
enthalpy change depends on
the conditions of temperature
and pressure as well as
physical states.
Standard state of a substance
69
is its pure form at 1 atmospere
 Standard Enthalpy of Formation and
Reaction

Standard enthalpy of
formation ΔHfo is the change
in enthalpy for a reaction that
forms 1 mole of a compound
from its stable elements at
their standard state.
The superscript o indicates
standard state condition.
70
 Standard enthalpy of Reaction
 Standard enthalpy of reaction, ΔHo is
the change when all the reactants and
products are in there standard states.
 Standard enthalpy change for a given
reaction is equal to the sum of the
standard enthalpies of formation of
the products minus the sum of the
enthalpies of formation of the
reactants, as shown in the following
mathematical expression:
71
 ΔHo = ƩnHfo products - ƩnHfo
reactants

where;
n represents n represents the
stiochiometric coefficients of the
products and reactants in the
thermochemical equationor number of
moles, and the symbol
Ʃ means summation.
72
 Elements in their
standard states that are
involved in the reaction are
usually omitted since their
heats of formation are equal to
zero.
Al (s) + Fe2O3 (s) →
Fe(s) + Al2O3 (s)
Applying the formula to get the
73 standard enthalpy change:
 Example
Given the standard enthalpies of
formation for the following:
Compounds
ΔHo
C6H12(l) -
151.9kJ/mol
CO2(g) -
393.5kJ/mol
H2O(l) -
285.8kJ/mol
74
o
 Solution:

ΔHo = ƩnHfo products - ƩnHfo

reactants
=
[6ΔHfo CO2 + 6ΔHfo H2O] –
[ΔHfo C6H12 ]
= [6(-393.5) + 6(-285.8)] – [-
151.9 ]
= -3923.9kJ
75
HESS’S LAW

76
 HESS’S LAW
 Hess’s law is a very
convenient way to obtain ΔH
values for reactions that are
very difficult to carry out in a
calorimeter.
 Hess’s law states that ΔH of a
reaction carried out in a
series of steps is equal to the
77
sum of the enthalpy changes
 A thermochemical equation can be
expressed as the sum of two or
more equations,

overall equation = equation

1+equation 2+…

and ΔH for the overall equation is

the sum of the ΔH for the individual
78 equations:
 Sample Problem:

Calculate the standard

enthalpy of formation, ΔHo
for methane gas, CH4,
produced from graphite and
hydrogen gas according to
the following reaction:
C(graphite) + 2H2(g) →
79
 Analysis:
Since this reaction that forms
methane gas does not take place as
written, ΔHo is determined indirectly
by using the following set of reactions
whose ΔHo values have been
accurately determined and applying
Hess’s Law.
1.) C(graphite) + O2 → CO2(g) ΔHo = -393.5kJ
2.) H2 (g) + ½O2(g) → H2O(l) ΔHo = -
285.8kJ
80
3.) CH (g) + 2O (g) → CO (g) + 2H O(l) ΔHo = -
 Strategy:

To calculate the standard enthalpy of

the given reaction do the following steps:
a. Write equation (1) as is.
b. Multiply reaction (2) by two including
the value of ΔHo .
c. Rewrite the reaction (3) in the reverse
direction and change the sign of ΔHo
from – to +.
d. Add the equations algebraically.
81 Substances that appear on the opposite
 SOLUTION:

1.) C(graphite) + O2 → CO2(g) ΔHo = -

393.5kJ
2.) 2H2 (g) +O2(g) → 2H2O(l) ΔHo =2(
-285.8kJ)
3.) CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) → CH4 (g) + 2O2(g)
ΔHo = +890.4kJ
Overall equation: C(graphite)+2H2O →
82
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