Sampling Error

• It occurs when the selected sample from a

population is not perfectly representative of the
entire population due to chance. This type of
error is inherent in random sampling, and it
introduces variability between different samples.
The key idea is that, even with a truly random
Random sampling method, the characteristics of the
sample may deviate from the characteristics of
sampling the population solely due to random chance.

error • Example:
• Population: Consider a population of students in
a large university with 10,000 students. The
university has students from various majors,
backgrounds, and academic levels.
• A researcher wants to study the average GPA of students in the university. To obtain
a representative sample, they decide to use a random sampling method. They create
a list of all student IDs and use a random number generator to select 500 student IDs
for their study.
• Random Sampling Error: Due to random chance, the sample selected may not
perfectly mirror the overall population. For instance, the researcher's sample might
end up having a slightly higher representation of students from the science and
engineering departments compared to the population's distribution.
Impact: The random sampling error could lead to an
overestimation or underestimation of the average GPA in the
entire university population. If the sample, by chance,
includes a disproportionate number of high-achieving or low-
achieving students from a specific department, it might not
accurately reflect the overall academic performance of the
university's student body.
Mitigation: To minimize random sampling error, researchers
can increase the sample size. Larger samples are more likely
to converge toward the true population parameters.
Additionally, replication of the study with different samples
helps verify the consistency of findings.
Key Points

 Random sampling error is an expected part of random

sampling.
 It arises due to the inherent variability in the
characteristics of different samples.
 Increasing the sample size and conducting replications
are strategies to mitigate the impact of random sampling
error.
• In summary, random sampling error highlights the natural
variability that occurs when randomly selecting samples
from a population. Researchers need to be aware of this
error and take steps to manage it, ensuring that their study
findings are as accurate and reliable as possible.
•
Systematic sampling error
• It arises from a systematic flaw or error in the process of
selecting samples from a population. Unlike random
sampling error, which occurs by chance, systematic
sampling error is a result of a consistent, non-random
pattern in the sampling process. This type of error can
lead to biased and inaccurate results.
Example:
• Population: Consider a population of employees in a large
company with 1,000 workers. The employees are
organized based on their departments, with five main
departments: Marketing, Finance, Human Resources,
Operations, and IT.
.
• Scenario: A researcher decides to study job satisfaction
among employees in the company. They opt for systematic
sampling by selecting every 20th employee from the
employee list, starting from a randomly chosen point.
• Systematic Sampling Error: Unbeknownst to the
researcher, the company has a policy that high-level
executives are more likely to be listed at the beginning of
the employee list. By starting at a random point and
selecting every 20th employee, the researcher introduces a
systematic bias favoring employees from specific
departments (possibly executives) over others
• Impact: The systematic sampling error could lead to an
overrepresentation of certain departments, possibly those
with higher-ranking employees. Consequently, the study
may not accurately reflect the overall job satisfaction
across all departments, as it is skewed towards the
experiences of employees in the selected departments.
• Mitigation: To mitigate systematic sampling error,
researchers should carefully design the sampling process to
avoid systematic patterns. For instance, they could start
sampling at a random point and then select every 20th
employee. Alternatively, they might use a more
sophisticated sampling method, such as stratified sampling,
to ensure representation from all departments.
Key Points:

 Systematic sampling error results from a systematic flaw in the

sampling process. It introduces a consistent, non-random bias in
the selected sample.
 Careful design of the sampling process and consideration of
potential biases are essential to mitigate systematic sampling
error.
 In summary, systematic sampling error can compromise the
validity of study results by introducing a bias that consistently
favors certain characteristics in the sample. Researchers need to
be mindful of systematic errors in their sampling procedures and
take steps to minimize their impact on the overall study findings
Non-response error
• It occurs when some individuals chosen for a survey or study
do not participate or provide data. This type of error can
introduce bias into the results if the characteristics of those who
choose not to respond differ systematically from those who do
respond. Non-response can occur for various reasons, such as
refusal to participate, inability to be contacted, or simply
neglecting to respond.
Example:
• Population: Consider a population of 1,000 customers who
recently purchased a product from an online store.
• Scenario: A company decides to conduct a customer
satisfaction survey by emailing a survey link to all 1,000
customers. However, only 600 customers respond to the survey.
Non-Response Error: The 400 customers who did not
respond may have different opinions about the product or
shopping experience compared to those who responded.
For example, customers who had a negative experience
might be more likely to ignore the survey, leading to a non-
response bias in favor of positive responses.
Impact: If the non-respondents have significantly different
opinions or experiences compared to the respondents, the
survey results may not accurately represent the overall
customer satisfaction in the entire population. The findings
could be biased towards the views of the customers who
chose to respond.
.Mitigation: To address non-response error, researchers can take several measures:
Implement .follow-up strategies to encourage participation from non-respondents.

Analyze the characteristics of respondents and non-respondents to identify potential biases.

Use statistical techniques such as weighting to adjust for the non-response bias if it is detected.

• Key Points:

Non-response error occurs when some selected individuals do not participate in a survey or study.

It can introduce bias if the characteristics of non-respondents differ systematically from

respondents.

Mitigation strategies involve efforts to increase response rates and analyze the characteristics of
respondents and non-respondents.
• In summary, non-response error can pose a significant
challenge in survey research, as it may lead to biased results
that do not accurately reflect the opinions or characteristics of
the entire population. Researchers must be aware of the
potential for non-response bias and implement strategies to
minimize its impact on the validity and reliability of study
findings
Coverage Error
• It also known as coverage bias, occurs when the
sampling frame, which is the list or source used to
identify and select individuals for a study, does not
accurately represent the entire target population. In
other words, some elements of the population are
systematically excluded from the sampling frame,
leading to a lack of coverage or representation.
• Example:Population: Consider a study aiming to
understand the internet usage patterns of adults in a
city with a population of 500,000.
Scenario: The researcher decides to use a list of
registered landline telephone numbers as the sampling
frame to contact individuals for the survey. However,
this method excludes individuals who rely solely on
mobile phones or do not have a phone connection
Coverage Error

The sampling frame (landline telephone numbers) does not cover the entire population, as it
systematically excludes individuals without landline phones. Consequently, the study's findings may
not accurately represent the internet usage patterns of the entire adult population, especially among
those without landline phones.
• Impact: The coverage error can lead to an underrepresentation or exclusion of certain groups,
potentially distorting the study's results. In this example, if internet usage patterns differ between
those with landline phones and those without, the study may miss crucial insights into the internet
behavior of the latter group.
• Mitigation: To mitigate coverage error, researchers can consider the following:
 Use a more comprehensive and representative sampling frame that includes all relevant segments
of the population.
 Combine multiple sampling frames or sources to ensure a broader coverage.
 Acknowledge and report the limitations associated with the sampling frame .
Key Points:

 Coverage error arises when the sampling frame does

not accurately represent the entire target population.
 It leads to a lack of coverage for specific groups or
segments, potentially introducing bias.
 Mitigation involves selecting a more comprehensive
sampling frame and recognizing and addressing
limitations in the study's coverage.

In summary, coverage error can significantly impact the

external validity of a study, making it crucial for
researchers to carefully choose or construct a sampling
frame that adequately represents the population of
interest. Failure to address coverage error may result in
biased findings and limited generalizability of study
results to the broader population
Non-sampling errors
• These errors that occur during the data collection
and analysis process but are not directly related to
the act of sampling. These errors can arise from
various sources, including measurement
instruments, data collection methods, and data
processing. Unlike sampling errors, which are
associated with the selection of a sample from a
population, non-sampling errors can affect the
entire dataset. Here are some types of non-sampling
errors with examples:
• Measurement Error: Definition: Measurement
error occurs when the instrument used to measure a
variable does not provide an accurate reflection of
the true value.
• Example: Consider a study measuring individuals'
heights using a faulty measuring tape. The recorded
heights may be consistently higher or lower than
the actual heights, introducing measurement error
• :
Processing Error
Definition: Processing errors occur during the data entry, coding, or analysis stages of a study.
Example: In a survey, data entry personnel may inadvertently transpose digits or make typos when entering
responses. These errors can lead to inaccurate data, affecting the reliability of the study's findings.
Non-Response Bias:
Definition: Non-response bias occurs when individuals who choose not to participate in a study differ
systematically from those who do participate.
Example: In an email survey about smartphone preferences, if younger individuals are more likely to respond
than older individuals, the survey results may be biased towards the preferences of the younger demographic.
Selection Bias:
 Definition: Selection bias arises when certain segments of the population are systematically
overrepresented or underrepresented in the sample.
 Example: If a health study recruits participants only from urban areas, the findings may not generalize
well to the entire population, especially those in rural areas.
Volunteer Bias:

Definition: Volunteer bias occurs when participants in a study are self-

selected, leading to a non-representative sample.

Example: In a clinical trial where participants volunteer to test a new drug,

the results may not generalize to the broader population, as those who
volunteer may have different health profiles or motivations compared to the
general population.
• Social Desirability Bias:

Definition: Social desirability bias occurs when participants provide

responses that align with societal expectations rather than their true beliefs
or behaviors.
Example: In a survey about healthy eating habits, participants may
overstate their adherence to healthy diets due to a desire to present
themselves favorably.
Mitigation Strategies:

 Rigorous training for data collectors.

 Validation and calibration of measurement
instruments.
 Thorough pre-testing and piloting of surveys.
 Efforts to minimize non-response through follow-
ups and incentives.
• Addressing non-sampling errors is essential for
ensuring the accuracy and reliability of study
findings. Researchers should implement strategies
to minimize these errors at various stages of the
research process.