Chapter 2

Motion in One Dimension

 Kinematics

Describes motion while ignoring the external agents that might have
caused or modified the motion
For now, we will consider motion in one dimension
 Along a straight line
Motion represents a continual change in an object’s position.
 Types of Motion

Translational
 An example is a car traveling on a highway.

Rotational
 An example is the Earth’s spin on its axis.

Vibrational
 An example is the back-and-forth movement of a pendulum.
 Particle Model

We will use the particle model.

 A particle is a point-like object; has mass but infinitesimal size
 Position
The object’s position is
its location with respect
to a chosen reference
point.

 Consider the point to

be the origin of a
coordinate system.

Only interested in the

car’s translational
motion, so model as a
particle
 Position-Time Graph

The position-time graph shows

the motion of the particle (car).

The smooth curve is a guess as

to what happened between the
data points.
 Data Table

The table gives the actual data

collected during the motion of
the object (car).

Positive is defined as being to

the right.
 Representations of the Motion of Car

Various representations include:

 Pictorial
 Graphical
 Tabular
 Mathematical
 The goal in many problems
Using alternative representations is often an excellent strategy for
understanding the situation of a given problem.
 For example, compare the different representations of the motion.
 Alternative Representations

Using alternative representations is often an excellent strategy for

understanding a problem.
 For example, the car problem used multiple representations.
 Pictorial representation
 Graphical representation
 Tabular representation
Goal is often a mathematical representation
 Displacement

Displacement is defined as the change in position during some time

interval.
 Represented as

 SI units are meters (m)

 can be positive or negative
Different than distance
 Distance is the length of a path followed by a particle.
 Distance vs. Displacement – An Example

Assume a player moves from one

end of the court to the other and
back.

Distance is twice the length of the

court
 Distance is always positive

Displacement is zero
 since
 Vectors and Scalars

Vector quantities need both magnitude (size or numerical value) and

direction to completely describe them.
 We will use + and – signs to indicate vector directions in this
chapter
Scalar quantities are completely described by magnitude only.
 Average Velocity [vector]

The average velocity is rate at which the displacement occurs.

The x indicates motion along the x-axis.

The dimensions are length / time [L/T]
The SI units are m/s
Is also the slope of the line in the position – time graph
 Average Speed [scalar]

Speed is a scalar quantity.

 Has the same units as velocity d
 Defined as total distance / total time,

The speed has no direction and is always expressed as a positive

number.
Neither average velocity nor average speed gives details about the
trip described.
 Average Speed and Average Velocity

The average speed is not the magnitude of the average velocity.

 For example, a runner ends at her starting point.
 Her displacement is zero.
 Therefore, her velocity is zero.
 However, the distance traveled is not zero, so the speed is not zero.
 Instantaneous Velocity

The limit of the average velocity as the time interval becomes

infinitesimally short, or as the time interval approaches zero.
The instantaneous velocity indicates what is happening at every point
of time.
 Instantaneous Velocity, graph

The instantaneous velocity is the slope

of the line tangent to the x vs. t curve.
 This would be the green line.

The light blue lines show that as gets

smaller, they approach the green line.
 A Note About Slopes

The slope of a graph of physical data represents the ratio of change in

the quantity represented on the vertical axis to the change in the
quantity represented by the horizontal axis.
The slope has units
 Unless both axes have the same units
 Instantaneous Velocity, equations

The general equation for instantaneous velocity is:

The instantaneous velocity can be positive, negative, or zero.

 Instantaneous Speed

The instantaneous speed is the magnitude of the instantaneous

velocity.
The instantaneous speed has no direction associated with it.
 Vocabulary Note

“Velocity[ 速度 ]” and “speed[ 速率 ]” will indicate instantaneous values.

Average will be used when the average velocity or average speed is
indicated.
 Analysis Models

Analysis models are an important technique in the solution to

problems.
An analysis model is a description of:
 The behavior of some physical entity, or
 The interaction between the entity and the environment.

Try to identify the fundamental details of the problem and attempt to

recognize which of the types of problems you have already solved
could be used as a model for the new problem.
 Analysis Models (continue)
Based on four simplification models
 Particle model
 System model
 Rigid object
 Wave

Problem approach
 Identify the analysis model that is appropriate for the problem.
 The model tells you which equation to use for the mathematical
representation.
 Model: A Particle Under Constant Velocity

Constant velocity indicates the instantaneous velocity at any instant

during a time interval is the same as the average velocity during that
time interval.

 The mathematical representation of this situation is the equation.

or
 Common practice is to let and the equation becomes: (for
constant )
Particle Under Constant Velocity, Graph

The graph represents the

motion of a particle under
constant velocity.
The slope of the graph is
the value of the constant
velocity.
The y-intercept is .
 Model: A Particle Under Constant Speed

A particle under constant velocity moves with a constant speed along

a straight line.
A particle can also move with a constant speed along a curved path.
This can be represented with a model of a particle under constant
speed.
The primary equation is the same as for average speed, with the
average speed replaced by the constant speed.
 Average Acceleration

Acceleration is the rate of change of the velocity.

Dimensions are L/T2

SI units are m/s2
In one dimension, positive and negative can be used to indicate
direction.
 Instantaneous Acceleration

The instantaneous acceleration is the limit of the average acceleration

as approaches 0.

The term acceleration will mean instantaneous acceleration.

 If average acceleration is wanted, the word average will be
included.
 Instantaneous Acceleration – graph

The slope of the velocity-

time graph is the
acceleration.
The green line represents
the instantaneous
acceleration.
The blue line is the
average acceleration.
 Graphical Comparison

Given the displacement-time graph

The velocity-time graph is found by

measuring the slope of the position-
time graph at every instant.

The acceleration-time graph is found

by measuring the slope of the
velocity-time graph at every instant.
 Acceleration and Velocity, Directions

When an object’s velocity and acceleration are in the same direction,

the object is speeding up.
When an object’s velocity and acceleration are in the opposite
direction, the object is slowing down.
 Acceleration and Force
The acceleration of an object is related to the total force exerted on
the object.
 The force is proportional to the acceleration, .
 Assume the velocity and acceleration are in the same direction.

 The force is in the same direction as the velocity and the

object speeds up.
 Assume the velocity and acceleration are in opposite directions.

 The force is in the opposite direction as the velocity and

the object slows down.
 Notes About Acceleration

Negative acceleration does not necessarily mean the object is slowing

down.
 If the acceleration and velocity are both negative, the object is
speeding up.
The word deceleration has the connotation of slowing down.
 This word will not be used in the text.
Motion Diagrams
A motion diagram can be formed by imagining the stroboscope photograph
of a moving object. (Red arrows represent velocity. Purple arrows represent acceleration. )
 Acceleration and Velocity (Constant Velocity)

Images are equally spaced.

The car is moving with constant positive velocity (shown by red arrows
maintaining the same size).
Acceleration equals zero.
Acceleration and Velocity (2)

Images become farther apart as time increases.

Velocity and acceleration are in the same direction.
Acceleration is uniform (violet arrows maintain the same length). Velocity is
increasing (red arrows are getting longer).
This shows positive acceleration and positive velocity.
Acceleration and Velocity (3)

Images become closer together as time increases.

Acceleration and velocity are in opposite directions. Acceleration is uniform
(violet arrows maintain the same length). Velocity is decreasing (red arrows
are getting shorter).
Positive velocity and negative acceleration.
 Acceleration and Velocity (final)

In all the previous cases, the acceleration was constant.

 Shown by the violet arrows all maintaining the same length

The diagrams represent motion of a particle under constant

acceleration.
A particle under constant acceleration is another useful analysis
model.
 Kinematic Equations

The kinematic equations can be used with any particle under uniform
acceleration.
The kinematic equations may be used to solve any problem involving
one-dimensional motion with a constant acceleration.
You may need to use two of the equations to solve one problem.
Many times there is more than one way to solve a problem.
 Kinematic Equations (1)

For constant ,

Can determine an object’s velocity at any time t when we know its

initial velocity and its acceleration
 Assume and

Does not give any information about displacement

 Kinematic Equations (2)

For constant acceleration,

The average velocity can be expressed as the arithmetic mean of the

initial and final velocities.
 This applies only in situations where the acceleration is constant.
 Kinematic Equations (3)

For constant acceleration,

This gives you the position of the particle in terms of time and
velocities.
Doesn’t give you the acceleration
 Kinematic Equations (4)

For constant acceleration,

Gives final position in terms of velocity and acceleration

Doesn’t tell you about final velocity
 Kinematic Equations (5)

For constant ,

Gives final velocity in terms of acceleration and displacement

Does not give any information about the time
 When

When the acceleration is zero,

The constant acceleration model reduces to the constant velocity

model.
Kinematic Equations – summary
 Graphical Look at Motion: Displacement – Time
curve

The slope of the curve is the velocity.

The curved line indicates the velocity
is changing.
 Therefore, there is an
acceleration.
 Graphical Look at Motion: Velocity – Time curve

The slope gives the acceleration.

The straight line indicates a constant
acceleration.
 Graphical Look at Motion: Acceleration – Time
curve

The zero slope indicates a constant

acceleration.
 Galileo Galilei

1564 – 1642
Italian physicist and astronomer
Formulated laws of motion for objects
in free fall
Supported heliocentric universe
 Freely Falling Objects

A freely falling object is any object moving freely under the

influence of gravity alone.
It does not depend upon the initial motion of the object.
 Dropped – released from rest
 Thrown downward
 Thrown upward
 Acceleration of Freely Falling Object

The acceleration of an object in free fall is directed downward,

regardless of the initial motion.
 The magnitude of free fall acceleration is .
 decreases with increasing altitude
 varies with latitude
 is the average at the Earth’s surface
 The italicized will be used for the acceleration due to gravity.

 Not to be confused with g for grams

 Acceleration of Free Fall (continue)

We will neglect air resistance.

Free fall motion is constantly accelerated motion in one dimension.
 Use model of a particle under constant acceleration

Let upward be positive

Use the kinematic equations
 With
 Note displacement is in the vertical direction
 Free Fall – An Object Dropped

Initial velocity is zero

Let up be positive
Use the kinematic equations
 Generally use y instead of x since vertical

Acceleration is
 Free Fall – An Object Thrown Downward

Initial velocity
 With upward being positive, initial velocity will be
negative.
Free Fall – Object Thrown Upward

Initial velocity is upward, so positive

The instantaneous velocity at the maximum height
is zero.
everywhere in the motion
 Thrown Upward (continue)

The motion may be symmetrical.

 Then
Then
The motion may not be symmetrical.
 Break the motion into various parts.

 Generally up and down

 Free Fall Example

Initial velocity at A is upward (+) and acceleration is

().
At B, the velocity is 0 and the acceleration is ().
At C, the velocity has the same magnitude as at A,
but is in the opposite direction.
The displacement is (it ends up 50.0 m below its
starting point).
 Kinematic Equations from Calculus

Displacement equals the area under the velocity –

time curve
𝑡𝑓

lim ∑ 𝑣𝑥𝑛 Δ𝑡 𝑛=∫ 𝑣𝑥 (𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑡

Δ𝑡 𝑛 →0 𝑛 𝑡𝑖
The limit of the sum is a definite integral.
Kinematic Equations – General Calculus Form
 Kinematic Equations – From Integration

The integration form of gives (constant acceleration)

The integration form of gives (constant acceleration)

 General Problem Solving Strategy

In addition to basic physics concepts, a valuable skill is the ability to

solve complicated problems.
Steps in a general problem solving approach:
 Conceptualize
 Categorize
 Analyze
 Finalize
 Problem Solving – Conceptualize

Think about and understand the situation.

Make a quick drawing of the situation.
Gather the numerical information.
 Include algebraic meanings of phrases.

Focus on the expected result.

 Think about units.

Think about what a reasonable answer should be.

 Problem Solving – Categorize
Simplify the problem.
 Can you ignore air resistance?
 Model objects as particles

Classify the type of problem.

 Substitution
 Analysis

Try to identify similar problems you have already solved.

 What analysis model would be useful?
 Problem Solving – Analyze

Select the relevant equation(s) to apply.

Solve for the unknown variable.
Substitute appropriate numbers.
Calculate the results.
 Include units

Round the result to the appropriate number of significant figures.

 Problem Solving – Finalize

Check your result.

 Does it have the correct units?
 Does it agree with your conceptualized ideas?

Look at limiting situations to be sure the results are reasonable.

Compare the result with those of similar problems.
 Problem Solving – Some Final Ideas

When solving complex problems, you may need to identify sub-

problems and apply the problem-solving strategy to each sub-part.
These steps can be a guide for solving problems in this course.