REACTIONS IN

AQUEOUS
SOLUTION
What is a solution?

A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more

substances. The substance present in the greatest
quantity is usually called the solvent, and the other
substances are called solutes; they are said to be
dissolved in the solvent.
 In a NaCl solution, NaCl is the solute and water is the
solvent.
Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
A substance (such as NaCl) whose aqueous solutions
contain ions is called an electrolyte. IONIC COMPOUND
A substance (such as sucrose) whose aqueous solutions
does not form ions is called an nonelectrolyte.
MOLECULAR COMPOUND.
How compounds
dissolve in water?
 When ionic compound dissolves, the
ions become surrounded by H2O
molecules, they are said to be
solvated.
 Solvation helps stabilize the ions in
solution and prevents cations and
anions from recombining.
 The ions and their shells of
surrounding water molecules are
free to move about, the ions
become dispersed uniformly
throughout the solution.
• When a molecular
compound such as
sucrose or methanol
dissolves in water, the
solution usually
consists of intact
molecules dispersed
throughout the
solution. Consequently,
most molecular
compounds are
nonelectrolytes.
• Strong acids and
strong bases have
aqueous solutions that
Strong and Weak Electrolytes

 Electrolytes differ in the extent to which they

conduct electricity. Strong electrolytes are those
solutes that exist in solution completely or nearly
completely as ions.
 Ionic compounds (NaCl) including NH4+ compounds
and a few molecular compounds (strong acids and
strong bases) are strong electrolytes.
 Weak electrolytes are those solutes that exist in solution mostly in the
form of neutral molecues with a small fraction in the form of ions.

Extremely soluble in water but a weak

electrolyte

Insoluble in water but a strong

electrolyte

 The half-arrows pointing in opposite directions mean that the reaction is

significant in both directions. At any given moment some CH3COOH
molecules are ionizing to form H+ and CH3COO- ions, and some of the H+
and CH3COO- ions are recombining to form CH3COOH.
 The balance between these opposing processes determines the relative
numbers of ions and neutral molecules. This balance produces a state of
chemical equilibrium in which the relative numbers of each type of ion
or molecule in the reaction are constant over time.
 A single reaction arrow is used for reactions that largely go forward.
EXAMPLE:
Precipitation Reactions

 Reactions that result in the

formation of an insoluble product
are called precipitation
reactions. A precipitate is an
soluble solid formed by a
reaction in solution.
 Exchange (Metathesis or Double Displacement) Reactions

 Reactionsin which cations

and anions appear to
exchange partners
conform to the general
equation

 Precipitation and
neutralization reactions
are examples
 EXAMPLES:
1- Classify these ionic compounds as soluble or insoluble in
water:
(a) sodium carbonate, Na2CO3, (b) lead sulfate, PbSO4.
2-

3-(a) Predict the identity of the precipitate that forms when

aqueous solutions of BaCl2 and K2SO4 are mixed. (b) Write
the balanced chemical equation for the reaction.
4-
Ionic Equations and Spectator Ions

 Anequation written in this fashion, showing the complete

chemical formulas of reactants and products, is called a
molecular equation.

 An equation written in this form, with all soluble strong

electrolytes shown as ions, is called a complete ionic equation.
K (aq) and NO3 -1 (aq) appear on both sides of
+1

equation. Ions that appear in identical forms on both

sides of a complete ionic equation, called spectator
ions.
 They play no direct role in the reaction and therefore
can be cancelled from both sides. After cancelling,
the left equation is called net ionic equation.

 Sum of the ionic charges must be the same on both

sides. If every ion in a complete ionic equation is a
spectator, no reaction occurs.
 EXAMPLE:

Write the net ionic equation for the precipitation reaction

that occurs when
aqueous solutions of
a- silver nitrate and potassium phosphate
b- calcium chloride and sodium. carbonate are mixed.
Acids, Bases, and Neutralization
Reactions
 Acids are substances that ionize in aqeous solution to form
hydrogen ions H+ (aq). H+ is simply a proton after giving an
electron. Thus, acids are called proton donors.
 Acids containing one hydrogen atom is called monoprotic
acids.
 HCl and HNO3 are monoprotic.
 H2SO4 is a diprotic acid containing two hydrogen atoms.
 Acetic acid has four hydrogens, but only one of them, the H
that is bonded to an oxygen in the —COOH group, is ionized
in water. Thus, the H in the COOH group breaks in water. The
three other hydrogens in acetic acid are bound to carbon and
do not break their C ¬ H bonds in water. CH3COOH
 Bases are substances that accept (react with) H+ ions.
Bases produce hydroxide ions (OH)- when they dissolve in
water.
 Ionic hydroxide compounds, such as NaOH, KOH, and
Ca(OH)2 , are among the most common bases. When
dissolved in water, they dissociate into ions introducing
OH- ions into the solution.
 Compounds such as NH3 can also be bases without
having a OH- ion.
Strong and Weak Acids and Bases
 Acids and bases that are strong electrolytes (completely
ionized in solution) are strong acids and strong bases.
 Those that are weak electrolytes (partly ionized) are
weak acids and weak bases.
 Reactivityof acids depends on H+ concentration and
anion of the acid.
 Strong acids are more reactive than weak acids if
reactivity only depends on H+ concentration.
 HF is a weak acid (partly ionizes) but is very reactive
because of H+ and F- ions.
When idetifiying the strength of the electrolyte
 Ask if it is ionic or molecular. Ionic compounds are
strong electrolytes.
 If it is molecular ask if it is acid or base. Look at the
strong acids and bases from the table.
 If the acid or base is in the list, it is a strong
electrolyte. If not, it is a weak electrolyte.
 EXAMPLES:
1- Classify these dissolved substances as a strong
electrolyte, weak electrolyte, or nonelectrolyte: CaCl2,
HNO3, C2H5OH (ethanol), HCOOH (formic acid), KOH.
2- Which of these substances, when dissolved in water, is a
strong electrolyte? (a) ammonia (b) hydrofluoric acid (c)
folic acid (d) sodium nitrate (e) sucrose.
3- Rank the acids from strongest to weakest.
Neutralization Reactions and Salts
 When a solution of an acid and a solution of a base are
mixed, a neutralization reaction occurs. The products of
the reaction have none of the characteristic properties of
either the acidic solution or the basic solution.
 Ingeneral, a neutralization reaction between an
acid and a metal hydroxide produces water and a
salt.

Complete ionic
equation

Net ionic equation

  Neutralization
reaction between any strong acid strong
base summarizes that H+ (aq) and OH- (aq) ions combine to
form H2O (l).
EXAMPLES:

2 Write the net ionic equation for the reaction of aqueous ammonia with
nitric acid?
Neutralization Reactions with Gas Formation

 Many bases besides OH- (e.g. sulfide and carbonate ion)

react with H+ to form gases that have low solubilities in
water.
 Acids which reacts with sulfide ion form H2S gas.
 Acidsthat reacts with carbonate or hydrogen carbonate
ion form carbonic acid first and if sufficient amount is
present it decomposes to CO2 gas and water.
 EXAMPLE:
 Magnesium carbonate, magnesium oxide, and magne-
sium hydroxide are all white solids that react with
acidic solutions.
(a) Write a balanced molecular equation and a net ionic
equation for the reaction that occurs when each
substance reacts with a hydrochloric acid solution.
(b) By observing the reactions in part (a), how could you
distinguish any of the three magnesium substances
from the other two?
 EXAMPLE:
 Writebalanced molecular and net ionic equations for the
following reactions, and identify the gas formed in each:
(a) solid cadmium sulfide reacts with an aqueous solution of
sulfuric acid; (b) solid magnesium carbonate reacts with an
aqueous solution of perchloric acid.
Oxidation–Reduction Reactions

 Reactionsin which electrons are transferred from one

reactant to another are called either oxidation-
reduction reactions or redox reactions.
 Corrosion is the conversion of a metal into a metal
compound, by a reaction between the metal and some
substance in its environment. When a metal corrodes,
each metal atom loses one or more electrons to form a
cation, which can combine with an anion to form an ionic
compound.
 In some instances, corrosion is limited to the surface of
the metal, as is the case with the green coating that
forms on copper roofs and statues. The green coating
contains Cu2+ combined with carbonate and hydroxide
 In other instances, the corrosion goes deeper, eventually
compromising the structural integrity of the metal, as
happens with the rusting of iron. Rust contains Fe3+
combined with oxide and hydroxide anions.
 Silver tarnish contains Ag+ combined with sulfide anions.
 When an atom, ion, or molecule becomes more positively
charged (that is, when it loses electrons), has been
oxidized. Loss of electrons by a substance is called
oxidation.
 Many metals react directly with O2 (sometimes a slow
reaction as in Fe+3 or a rapid reaction as in alkaline and
alkaline earth metals) in air to form metal oxides.
 In these reactions, the metal loses electrons and is
 Neutral Ca is oxidized to Ca2+
 Neutral O2 transformed to O2- ions is reduced .

Oxidation Numbers

 Monatomic ions, the oxidation number is the same as the

charge. For neutral molecules and polyatomic ions, the
oxidation number of a given atom is a hypothetical charge.
This charge is assigned by artificially dividing up the electrons
among the atoms in the molecule or ion.
1. For an atom in its elemental form,the oxidation number is
always zero. (Each H atom in an H2 molecule has an oxidation
number zero)
2. For any monatomic ion, the oxidation number equals the ionic
charge. K+ has an oxidation number of +1, S2- has an oxidation
number of -2.
 In ionic compounds the alkali metal ions (Group 1) always have a
1+ charge and therefore an oxidation number of + 1. The
oxidation number of the alkaline earth metals (Group 2) always
have +2, and aluminum (Group 13) is always +3 in ionic
compounds.
For distinguishing oxidation state and ionic charge we will
use as stated below:
+1 oxidation state
1+ charge
3. Nonmetals usually have negative oxidation numbers,
although they can sometimes be positive:
(a) The oxidation number of oxygen is usually -2 in both ionic
and molecular compounds. The major exception is in compounds
called peroxides, which contain the O22- ion, giving each oxygen
an oxidation number of -1.
(b) The oxidation number of hydrogen is usually +1 when
bonded to nonmetals and -1 when bonded to metals (for
example, metal hydrides such as sodium hydride, NaH).
(c) The oxidation number of fluorine is -1 in all compounds. The
other halogens have an oxidation number of -1 in most binary
compounds. When combined with oxygen, as in oxyanions,
however, they have positive oxidation states.
4. The sum of the oxidation numbers of all atoms in a
neutral compound is zero. The sum of the oxidation
numbers in a polyatomic ion equals the charge of the ion.
H3O+ : The oxidation numbers of hydrogen atom is +1 and
oxygen are -2. The sum of theoxidation numbers is equal to
the charge of the ion 1+.
EXAMPLES
 Determine the oxidation number of sulfur in (a) H2S, (b) S8,
(c) SCl2, (d) Na2SO3, (e) SO42-.
 In which compound is the oxidation state of oxygen -1?
(a) O2 (b) H2O (c) H2SO4 (d) H2O2 (e) KCH3COO
 Oxidation of Metals by Acids and Salts

 The reaction between a metal and either an acid or a metal

salt

 These reactions are called displacement reactions because

the ion in solution is displaced (replaced) through oxidation of
an element. Many metals undergo displacement reactions with
acids, producing salts and hydrogen gas.
 Mg atom is oxidized. (The change in oxidation number
is 0 to +2)
 H+ is reduced. (The change in oxidation number is +1 to
0)
 The oxidation number in Cl did not change on both
sides.
Net ionic equation:
 Metals can also be oxidized by aqueous solutions of
various salts.
 Fe atom is oxidized. (The change in oxidation number is
0 to +2)
 Ni2+ is reduced. (The change in oxidation number is +2 to
0)
 Whenever one substance is oxidized, another substance
must be reduced.
 EXAMPL
 Writethe balanced molecular and net ionic E:
equations for
the reaction of aluminum with hydrobromic acid.
The Activity Series
 Different metals vary in the ease with which they are oxidized.
Zn is oxidized by aqueous solutions of Cu2+, for example, but Ag
is not. Zn, therefore, loses electrons more readily than Ag; that
is, Zn is easier to oxidize than Ag.
 A list of metals arranged in order of decreasing ease of oxidation,
is called an activity series. The metals at the top of the table,
such as the alkali metals and the alkaline earth metals, are most
easily oxidized; that is, they react most readily to form
compounds. They are called the active metals.
 The metals at the bottom of the activity series, such as the
transition elements from Groups 8 to 11, are very stable and
form compounds less readily. These metals, which are used to
make coins and jewelry, are called noble metals because of
their low reactivity.
1- Any metal on
the list can be
oxidized by the
ions of elements
below it.
2- Only metals
above hydrogen in
the activity series
are able to react
with acids to form
H2 .
 EXAMPLES

:
Will an aqueous solution of iron(II) chloride oxidize magnesium metal? If
so, write the balanced molecular and net ionic equations for the reaction.

 Using the activity series write balanced chemical equations for the
following reactions. If no reaction occurs, write NR. (a) Iron metal is
added to a solution of copper(II) nitrate, (b) zinc metal is added to a
solution of magnesium sulfate, (c) hydrobromic acid is added to tin
metal, (d) hydrogen gas is bubbled through an aqueous solution of
nickel(II) chloride, (e) aluminum metal is added to a solution of
cobalt(II) sulfate.
Concentrations of Solutions

 Concentration term is used to designate the amount

of solute dissolved in a given quantity of solvent or
quantity of solution. The greater the amount of solute
dis- solved in a certain amount of solvent, the more
concentrated the resulting solution.
1. Molarity
 Molarity (symbol M) expresses the concentration of a
solution as the number of moles of solute in a liter of
solution.
 EXAMPLE
 Preparing 0.250 L of a 1.00 M solution of CuSO4.
:
n= 0.25 mol
M(CuSO4) = 63.5 g/mol + 32 g/mol + 4 x 16
g/mol
M(CuSO4) = 159.5 g/mol
n=
m= 0.25 mol x 159.5 g/mol
m= 39.9 g
 EXAMPLE:
 Calculatethe molarity of a solution made by dissolving
23.4 g of sodium sulfate (Na2SO4) in enough water to form
125 mL of solution.
 EXAMPLE:
 What is the molar concentration of each ion present in a
0.025 M aqueous solution of calcium nitrate?
 Ca(NO3)2 (aq) Ca2+ (aq) + 2 NO3- (aq)
0.025 M 0.025 M 0.050 M EXAMPLE:

Find the molarity of ethyl alcohol in a beer if it contains 5%

ethyl alcohol by volume in water The density of ethanol is
0.789 g/mL. M: 46 g/mol.
5 mL ethyl alcohol 100 ml solution
50 mL ethyl alcohol 1000 ml solution
0.789 g/mL =
m= 39.45 g ethyl alcohol
n=
n= n= 0.858 mol
M = = 0.858 M
 EXAMPLE:
 How many grams of Na2SO4 are required to make 0.350 L
of 0.500 M Na2SO4? M(Na2SO4) = 142.1 g/mol.
 Dilution

 Solutions used routinely in the laboratory are often

purchased or prepared in concentrated form (called stock
solutions). Aqueous solutions of lower concentrations can
then be obtained by adding water, a process called
dilution.
 EXAMPLE:

 Howmany milliliters of 3.0 M H2SO4 are needed to make

450 mL of 0.10 M H2SO4?
EXAMPLES:
Solution Stoichiometry and Chemical Analysis

EXAMPLE:
 How many grams of Ca(OH)2 are needed to
neutralize 25.0 mL of 0.100 M HNO3?
EXAMPLE:
 Titrations

 To determine the concentration of a particular solute in a

solution, chemists often carry out a titration, which
involves combining a solution where the solute
concentration is not known with a reagent solution of
known concentration, called a standard solution.
 Just enough standard solution is added to completely
react with the solute in the solution of unknown
concentration. The point at which stoichiometrically
equivalent quantities are brought together is known as
the equivalence point.
 Titrations can be conducted using neutralization,
precipitation, or oxidation-reduction reactions.
Acid- base
titration:
 EXAMPLE:
 If45.7 mL of 0.500 M H2SO4 is required to neutralize 20.0
mL of NaOH solution. What is the concentration of the
NaOH solution?
EXAMPLE:
EXAMPLE:
 EXAMPLE:
A sample of 70.5 mg of potassium phosphate is added to 15.0
mL of 0.050 M silver nitrate, resulting in the formation of a
precipitate. (a) Write the molecular equation for the reaction.
(b) What is the limiting reactant in the reaction? (c) Calculate
the theoretical yield, in grams, of the precipitate that forms.