Cells…

Structure and Function

It is the cell that is alive! Therefore...
study cells to study life.

1
 Cells are basic unit of life (one or more)
 All living things are made up of cells (one
or more)
 All cells arise from pre existing cells (cells
come only from another cells)

2
Cells are characterized by the
following properties:
 The ability to synthetize proteins and other
chemical compouns (nucleic acid,lipids…)
 The ability to multiply in which division of a single
cells occurs
 Continous exchange of material and energy with
the environment in which they live
 The ability to adapt to environmental conditions
by the regulation physiological state
 The ability to grow and differentiate

3
Living cells are divided into two
types: prokaryotic and eukaryotic

4
Procaryotic
 They have no nucleus (the word
prokaryotic is from greek „pro” (before)
and „karyon” (nucleus, kernel)
 The DNA is concentrated toward the
centre of the cell in region called nucleoid
 In contrast the eucariotic cell (greek „eu”-
true) has true nucleus enclosed by a
membranous nuclear envelope

5
 Prokaryotes lack organelles (internal
membrane-bound structures)
A typical bacterium

Ribosomes

Flagella

1.0 M

Cytoplasm
Chromosome

Cell wall Cell membrane

6
7
 Nuclear
Generalized animal cell envelope
Nucleolus
Chromatin

Rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
Centrioles Ribosomes
Smooth
Lysosome endoplasmic
reticulum
Gogli
apparatus
Peroxisome
Mitochondrion
Cytoskeletal
element
10 M Cell membrane
(Plasma
membrane)

Circled structures are only found in animal cells.

8
 Nuclear
Generalized animal cell envelope
Nucleolus
Chromatin

Rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
Centrioles Ribosomes
Smooth
Lysosome endoplasmic
reticulum
Gogli
apparatus
Peroxisome
Mitochondrion
Cytoskeletal
element
10 M Cell membrane
(Plasma
membrane)

9
 Generalized plant cell Nuclear
envelope
Nucleolus
Chromatin
Rough
endoplasmic
Central vacuole
reticulum
Ribosomes
Cell wall
Smooth
endoplasmic
Chloroplast
reticulum
Gogli
apparatus
Peroxisome
Mitochondrion
Plasmodesmata - Cytoskeletal
permit cell-cell contact element
Cell membrane
(Plasma
10 M membrane)

Circled structures are only found in plant cells.

10
Animal Cell Nucleus
 The nucleus is a
highly specialized
organelle that
serves as the
information and
administrative
center of the cell.

11
 Cell Sizes
•On average, prokaryotic cells are
1/10th the diameter of eukaryotic
cells, and 1/1000th the volume.
•Organelle membranes increase the
overall cellular membrane surface
area

NEXT CELL COMPONENETS….

12
 Ribosomes: the smallest structure in
the cell
polypeptide

large subunit

mRNA
small subunit

...a protein synthesis machine that translates a

nucleotide sequence from messenger RNA
(mRNA) into an amino acid sequence (a
polypeptide)
All cells have ‘em! 13
The nucleus: the
largest structure Cross-sectional view of nuclear envelope
in a cell DNA in nucleus
Surface view of nuclear envelope
Inner membrane

Outer membrane
Cytoplasm
Nuclear pore

DNA in nucleus
Nucleus
Inner membrane

Nuclear
envelope

Outer membrane
Cytoplasm

Figure 5.4b
Nuclear pore complex

14
Molecules and ribosomal subunits move in
and out of nucleus

DNA DNA archives

instructions
mRNA RNA is a copy of the
instructions

Ribosome
mRNA RNA instructions are used
to make proteins

Protein Proteins are shipped to

specific locations in the cell

Some proteins enter nucleus and assist

with copying DNA or making RNAs
15
 Large particles (like ribosomal
subunits) and large molecules move in
and/or out of the nucleus through
pores:
Nucleus

Nucleus
Cytoplasm

Cytoplasm

Micro-injected particles move through pores

16
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER),
smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER),
Golgi vesicles and the outer membrane
of the nuclear envelope are part of a
cellular endomembrane system...

17
 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
 The rough ER and smooth ER are connected and are
continuous with the nuclear envelope.
 It is rough because imbedded in the membrane are
ribosomes, the site of the synthesis of secretory
proteins. The rough ER is also the site for the
synthesis of membrane. Enzymes synthesize
phospholipid that forms all the membranes of the
cell. Ribosomes in the rough ER synthesize protein
that then are converted to glycoprotein and
packaged in transport vesicles for secretion.

18
19
 Rough ER (with ribosomes attached)

ribosomes
…synthesis of ‘packaged’ or secreted proteins
20
Smooth ER (no ribosomes attached)

In liver & other cells, detoxification 21

22
 E.r. is important in certain types of
reactions
 protein processing,
 lipid formation,
 membrane formation
 detoxifying reactions.
A Golgi apparatus

Part of endomembrane system... 24

25
26
 Secreted & other ‘packaged’ proteins move
through parts of the endomembrane system.
nuclear outer membrane

ribosomes

lysosome

27
 Lysosomes and Peroxisomes

 Lysosomes are
roughly spherical
bodies bounded
by a single
membrane. They
are manufactured
by the
Golgi apparatus

28
Lysosomes
The main function of these microbodies is digestion. Lysosomes
break down cellular waste products and debris from outside
the cell into simple compounds, which are transferred out into
the cytoplasm as new cell-building materials.

29
 plasma membrane
RER

secretion

Golgi vesicles Lysosome

30
 Lysosome: a bag of digestive enzymes
that catalyze the hydrolysis of DNA,
RNA, proteins, CHOs (polisacharids),
fats, etc.
Lysosomes function during the digestion of
bacteria by white blood cells (phagocytes), and
in tissue remodeling that occurs during
development, wound healing, metamorphosis,
etc.

31
 Embryo's hand development in week 7

Membrane between
fingers

Hands are developing at an amazing speed this week! Day 48

And this is the hand only 3 days later

32
pH within the lysosome is about pH 5

 They contain different kinds of

hydrolytic enzymes including
 proteases
 lipases
 nucleases
 polysaccharidases

33
Secretory Lysosomes

 In some cells, lysosomes have a secretory function

— releasing their contents by exocytosis.
 Cytotoxic T cells (CTL) secrete perforin from
lysosomes.
 Mast cells secrete some of their many mediators of
inflammation from modified lysosmes.
 Melanocytes secrete melanin from modified
lysosomes.
 The exocytosis of lysosomes provides the additional
membrane needed to quickly seal wounds in the
plasma membrane.(fagosom-!)

34
 Peroxisomes are about the size of lysosomes
(0.5–1.5 µm) and like them are bound by a single
membrane.
 They also resemble lysosomes in being filled
with enzymes.
 The enzymes and other proteins destined for
peroxisomes are synthesized in the cytosol.
Each contains a peroxisomal targeting signal
(PTS) that binds to a receptor molecule that
takes the protein into the peroxisome and then
returns for another load.

35
 Some of the functions of the peroxisomes in
the human liver
 Breakdown (by oxidation) of excess fatty acids.
 Breakdown of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), a
potentially dangerous product of fatty-acid
oxidation. It is catalyzed by the enzyme catalase.
 Participates in the synthesis of cholesterol.
 Participates in the synthesis of bile acids.
 Participates in the synthesis of the lipids used to
make myelin.
 Breakdown of excess purines (AMP, GMP) to uric
acid.
 Peroxisomes are also present in plant cells where
they participate is such functions as
-symbiotic nitrogen fixation
-photorespiration

36
Clinical correlation - Tay-Sachs
 Tay-Sachs disease is one of a group of diseases
causes by genes that result in abnormal lysosomes.
In this case the lysosomes lack a lipid digesting
enzyme that results in brain cells that accumulate
excess lipids. The disease is fatal. There is a DNA
test to determine the likelyhood that a couple will
produce children with the disease.

37
38
Other functions of
the RER and Golgi
vesicles include the
addition of sugars to
proteins to make
glycoproteins.

39
 Vacuoles
 Vacuoles are bounded by a
single membrane. Young
plant cells often contain
many small vacuoles, but as
the cells mature, these unite
to form a large central
vacuole. Vacuoles serve
several functions, such as
 storing foods (e.g., proteins
in seeds)
 storing wastes
 maintaining turgor in the cell.

40
Mitochondria: the site of respiration
and most ATP synthesis in cells
Outer membrane

Intermembrane space

Inner membrane

Matrix
424 nm
Cristae

DNA
(in the matrix)

Note the inner and outer membranes

and the increased surface area of the
cristae 41
 Chloroplasts
•the site of photosynthesis in green plants.
•green because they contain chlorophyll.
•like mitochondria, have inner & outer membranes.
•thylakoid membranes contain enzymes to reduce CO 2.

Outer
membrane
Inner
membrane
DNA

Thylakoids

Granum

Stroma

42
The endosymbiotic theory:
mitochondria and chloroplasts were
free-living bacteria and cyanobacteria
‘eaten’ but not digested by early
eukaryotic cells.

The symbiosis evolved into a non-

parasitic relationship benefiting the
host and perhaps the endosybiont as
well. 43
 Evidence for the endosymbiotic
theory:
•Mitochondria & chloroplasts dimensions
are similar to those of bacterial and
cyanobacteria, respectively.
•The organaisms & organelles have similar
size circular DNA molecules.
•The organelles replicate & transcribe
their genes and translate mRNAs with
their own ribosomes. 44
Lipid Bilayer
 Main component of cell membranes
 Gives the membrane its fluid properties
 Two layers of phospholipids

one layer
of lipids
one layer
of lipids
45
Membrane Proteins
Recognition Receptor
protein protein

extracellular
environment

lipid bilayer

cytoplasm

Protein Protein Protein pump

pump across channel
bilayer across bilayer
46
The Extracellular Matrix (ECM)

 Most of the cells in multicellular organisms are

surrounded by a complex mixture of nonliving
material that makes up the extracellular matrix
(ECM).
 In plants, the ECM is primarily composed of
cellulose.
 In arthropods and fungi, the ECM is largely
composed of chitin.
 In vertebrates, the ECM is made of a complex
mixture of carbohydrates and proteins (plus
minerals in the case of bone).

47
Composition of the ECM
The ECM of vertebrates is composed of complex mixtures of :
 proteins
 proteoglycans,
 in the case of bone, mineral deposits.

48
 Cytoskeleton.

 Eukaryotic cells has a meshwork of tiny

fibers that support the structure. This
network is the cytoskeleton.

49
 Structures of the Cytoskeleton
intermediate
microfilaments filaments microtubules

50
 The Cytoskeleton seen by Immunofluorescence
Microscopy
Fluorescence micrograph Fluorescence micrograph
showing distribution of showing distribution of
microfilaments in intermediate filaments in
mammalian cells mammalian cells

Cytoskeleton components help maintain cell shape 51

e Roles of Cytoskeletal Filament

•Microfilaments: motility (e.g., muscle)

& structure
•Intermediate filaments: structure
•Microtubules: structure & motility
(e.g., vesicle transport, cilia, flagella,
mitotic spindle...)
52
Protozoa with typical cilia and flagella:
Cilia Flagella

53
 The structure of eukaryotic cilia & flagella:

axoneme
Cell membrane

Central pair

Outer doublet

Dynein

Bridge

Spoke

Typical “9 + 2” arrangement
of microtubules 54
Sliding microtubules cause cilia and
flagella to bend:
nd
Be

55
Intracellular junctions
 PLANTS:
 Plasmodesmata: cell
wall perforations; water and solute
passage in plants
 ANIMALS:
 Tight junctions~ fusion of
neighboring cells; prevents leakage
between cells
 Desmosomes~ riveted, anchoring
junction; strong sheets of cells
 Gap junctions~ cytoplasmic
channels; allows passage of
materials or current between cells

56
57
58
ANY QUESTIONS ?

59
 Quiz
1. Nucleus (chromatin) is compound of ………… and……………..
2. The nucleus is the site of ……………and……………….
1. Transcription
2. Translation
3. Replication
3. Which structures do not occurs in animal cell
1. …………………
2. …………………..
3. …………………
4. The membranes of organelles are
1. Permeable
2. Not permeable
3. Semi permeable
5. Endomembrane system is compound of
1. ……………………
2. ……………………..
3. ………………………

60
1. The rough ER is the site of the synthesis of
1. lipids.
2. phospholipids
3. DNA
4. Proteins
5. steroids
2. The Golgi apparatus functions is ……………………………….. of
the ER to ………………………….
3. Tay-Sachs disease is one of a group of diseases causes by
genes that result in abnormal …………………...
1. Peroxysomes
2. Golgi apparatus
3. Endoplasmic reticulum
4. Lysosomes

61
1. Mitochondria convert the chemical energy of sugars
and other organic compounds into the high-energy
phosphate bonds of an ……. Molecule
1. ADP
2. Lipid
3. DNA
4. ATP
2. Lipid Bilayer is compound of
1. 1 layer of phospholipids
2. 2 layers of phospholipids
3. 3 layers of phospholipids
4. 4 layers of phospholipids

62
63