SENSITOMETRY

ADIL AHMAD WANI

 History
• Sensitometery as a photographic science has been credited to two
Americans, Ferdinand Hurter and Vero Charles Driffield, who first
proposed a form of evaluation of the performance of photographic
material in about 1876

• The main interest in radiography is how the film will react to

(apparently) x-radiation, although usually the real interest is how the
film will react to the light produced by the IS.
 Sensitometry

• The study of the relationship between intensity of exposure of the film

and the blackness after processing.

• Or

• is the measurement of the sensitivity of the film towards radiation.

 Sensitometry

1. Photographic density is normally the blackness of the film.

2. Characteristic curve is the graph which shows the relationship

between the log of exposure and the density produced in the film.
 Photographic density
• On the developed film, the deposit of Ag may be said to have a light-
stopping effect or a degree of blackness; this varies with amount of Ag
present, which in turn increases with increase in exposure.

• Obviously greater blackening of the film allows less light to be transmitted.

• it has been explained that the following 3 expressions give the numerical
value to the degree of blackness

• a. Transparency
• b. Opacity
• c. Optical density
 A. Transparency
• It can be expressed by the ratio of the transmitted light (Lt) through the
film to the incident light (Li).
• Transmission ratio =Lt/Li
• in percentage, 100Lt/Li
• A perfectly opaque area of an image has zero transmission ratio and zero
percentage transmission.

• A perfectly transparent area of an image has transmission ratio one and

100% transmission.

• Transmission ratio decreases with film blackening or exposure.

 B. Opacity

• It is the ratio of incident light to transmitted light

• Or
• is the reciprocal of the transmission ratio. i.e. Opacity=1/transmission ratio =
Li/Lt
• The blackest part of an x-ray has an opacity approaching 10,000.
• A perfectly transparent area has an opacity one.
• • A perfect opaque area has infinite opacity.
• It can be appreciated that it always has the value greater than unity and it
increases with the exposure.
 Photographic density
NOW,
• The easiest way to appreciate the relationship between exposures and
the results of exposures is to make a graph
• .It is found that the most useful graph is obtained by plotting
logarithmic values on both axes.
• Logarithmic scales enable a much wider range of values to be
appreciated with understanding; also equal increments have the same
ratio.
• The sensitometric graph which results a curve is called a characteristic
curve.
 X-ray exposure
• The term 'X-ray exposure' is not synonymous with exposure factors
but it refers to a physical measure of exposure in units such as
coulombs per Kg (SI unit) or Roentgens (traditional unit).

• It is not easy to measure absolute x-ray exposure, so we produce

relative values of it.
 Relative exposure
• If a sheet of screen type x-ray film is divided (say) 10 small areas and each
area is exposed with same tube kv and mA but different exposure times, it
is simple matter to relate the x-ray exposure received by each area.
• The area which has been given the smallest exposure is used as the baseline
and allocated a relative exposure of unity, and the other areas, subjected to
higher exposure values
 Log Relative exposure
• The intensity of radiation producing the blackest parts of image may
be thousands of times greater than that producing lowest densities.
Thus, the values of relative exposure may vary from unity to several
thousands and it is problematic to plot.

Equipment's used for sensitometry

• Sensitometer (Penetrameter):- measures film sensitivity to light, and
shows the range of densities on an image.
 Penetrameter
• Step-wedge cause the differential attenuation that creates req. range of
intensities.
• Used to monitor film/screen combination.
• Not recommended for processor monitoring.
 Densitometer
• It provides measurement of light transmitted through film
or
• measures optical density.
• Uniform light source and an optical sensor.
• Calibration control allows for easy.
 characteristic curve
• The characteristic curve in radiology, also known as the D logE curve
or H&D (Hurter and Driffield) curve,
• The relationship between log of the exposure of a film received and
the density produced by the exposure can be plotted as a curve known
as characteristic curve
• The characteristic curve is created by exposing a series of radiographic
films to a range of different radiation doses, and measuring the
resulting densities of the developed images. The densities are plotted
on the y-axis of the curve, and the radiation exposure levels are plotted
on the x-axis. The resulting curve shows how the density of the image
changes as the radiation exposure increases.
 How to make characteristic curve
• There are three basic stages involved

• i. Exposing and processing film

• ii. Measuring the densities produced

• iii. Plotting the graph

 Exposing and processing film
• To generate a characteristic curve we need to irradiate the film or film-
screen system with series of exposures which progress in known steps
so that the relative exposure received by each step can be recorded.
• Wedge factor should be constant throughout the exposure.
• t is usual to provide 21 exposure steps.
• The smallest exposure must be such that no measurable effect can be
seen on the film.
• The heaviest exposure should be greater than that sufficient to activate
every silver halide grain in the emulsion, so that the maximum
possible density produced.
• Two methods:-
• A. Using variation along time scale: tube kv, mA, focal spot setting, FFD used are
constant, but time will vary with wedge constant.
• B. Using variation along intensity scale: using step-wedge (flight of metal strips) of a
material such aluminum, plastic (for soft x rays)and steel (for hard x rays).
Information provided by characteristics curve
• speed/sensitivity
• contrast
• latitude
 The Toe Region
• The point where the curve just begins to turn up and the line of the
graph causes to be parallel to the horizontal axis called The Threshold.
• It represents the 1st response of the material to radiation.
• Where,
• Net Density = Gross Density - Gross fog
• It has small density (around 0.2), even at the starting point although
there has been no exposure or only a very small exposure which is the
result of base density plus fog.
• Base plus Fog is also called Basic fog which is usually upto 0.2.
• Base density and fog density are not diagnostically useful
 straight-line region
• The straight-line region of the characteristic curve is the most
important part for diagnostic imaging. In this region, the density of the
image changes linearly with the logarithm of the radiation exposure,
and the slope of the line represents the film's sensitivity to radiation.
The steeper the slope, the greater the sensitivity of the film to
radiation, and the lower the radiation dose needed to produce a
diagnostic image. The straight-line region of the curve is used to
determine the optimal exposure settings for producing high-quality
diagnostic images.
 The shoulder region
• Maximum Density: This region shows maximum density
• As the film or the film-screen system is subjected to greater and greater exposure, a
point is reached when further increase in exposure can't result any increase in
density. Thus, the film achieves a max level of density known as D-max.
• In this region, subject contrast do not produce image contrast and no subject detail
can be visualized.
• In this region characteristic curve has zero gradient, indicate zero image contrast.
• D max depends on:
• silver coating weight:
• The greater the amount of AgX per unit area of film, the higher is D max.
• Eg. non-screen film.
• processing condition:
• Reversal:
• The phenomenon when subjected to exposures many times greater
than that required to achieve D max, the film emulsion respond in the
opposite way to normal, producing a reduction in image density called
reversal.
• The film is said to be solarized and the reversal part of the
characteristic curve is referred to as the region of solarization.
 CONTRAST

Contrast is perhaps the most significant characteristic of an image recorded on film.

Contrast is the variation in film density (shades of gray) that actually forms the
image.
Without contrast there is no image. The amount of contrast in an image depends on
a number of factors, including the ability of the particular film to record contrast.
The exposure variations which constitute subject contrast generate differences in
the image density and therefore produces contrast in the radiographic image, known
as radiographic contrast.
Although it is possible to have density without contrast but not possible to have
contrast without densities. The contrast of film It depends on:
subject contrast
film contrast
 1. Characteristic curve
1. Thickness of body part 2. Film density
2. Density 3. Film processing
3. Atomic number of 4. Direct
constituent tissue exposure/Indirect
4. KVp exposure.
5. Contrast materials used 5. type of emulsion
6. Scattered radiation 6. Fog
7. Amount of exposure.
• Subject contrast • Film contrast
 LATITUDE OF FILM
Latitude is given by the exposure range that will produce an acceptable density
of the film. If the contrast of the film is high then the latitude will be low. And
if the contrast is low the film latitude will be high.
Note that, latitude decreases as the slop of the curve increases and also film
latitude decreases as kv increases. And if kvp decreases then the film latitude is
increases.
Latitude is an expression of the tolerance of a system to extreme conditions of
exposure. It refers to the ability of a film or film-screen system to record
successfully a wide range of exposure.
Latitude considered in two parts.
1. Film latitude
2. Exposure latitude
• Film Latitude
The difference between the upper and lower limits of log relative exposure
which produce density within the useful range
Any x-ray intensity that falls out side of the film latitude will not reveal any
information . And a useful information might be lost.

Exposure Latitude
This refers to the freedom of the radiographer to select slightly different
exposure, to save room scatter exposure. Which will help a radiographer to
make a good looking film.

Exposure latitude = Film latitude – Subject contrast.

 FILM SPEED
The Speed of film = Reciprocal amount of exposure in Roentgen
required to produce a density of one radiograph.

If film is high less exposure is required to produce the same

density as required by slow film which require more exposure.
 Gamma
• The gamma value of a film is the maximum slope of the characteristic curve. The
relationship between the film gamma value and the maximum contrast factor is given
by:
• Gamma = 3.32 x Maximum contrast factor.
• The factor 3.32 converts a slope based on an exposure ratio of 2:1 to a slope
expressed with respect to a 10:1 exposure ratio.

The Relationship of
Average Gradient
and Gamma to the
Characteristic Curve
 Average Gradient
• If,
• AG>1: exaggerates subject contrast typical for x-ray film
• =1: no change in subject contrast
• <1: decreases subject contrast
• Factors affecting Average Gradient are:
• Grain size distribution in film emulsion.
• Whether the film is double coated or single coated emulsion.
• Film processing condition, particularly during development.
• Characteristic of intensifying screen.
 Uses of Characteristic curve
• To compare different types of films
• To compare different types of screens.

• Useful tool to set up exposure devices

• To determine avg, gradient & therefore subject contrast amplification

• To find film and exposure latitude

• To find absolute value of the speed of the films

• To monitor the performance of auto processor

 Key Relationships
• Transmission ratio = transmitted light/incident light
• % transmission = 100lt/lo
• Opacity=lo/It
• Optical Density =Log 10 Opacity
• Net density = Gross density-Gross fog
• Average gradient Useful density range/ film latitude
• Film latitude = Useful density range/Average gradient
where useful density range = 2.0-0.25 = 1.75
Exposure latitude = film latitude - log exposure range