Logic: Understanding

the Foundations of
Reasoning
Logic is a fundamental aspect of human reasoning. It involves
analyzing arguments and determining their validity. This presentation
provides an introduction to the key concepts of logic, focusing on the
building blocks that enable us to understand and reason about the
world.
Learning Objectives
a. Use mathematical symbols and discern truth values
of arguments:
b. Construct truth tables:
c. Determine whether the given proposition is a
tautology; and
d. Work with existential and universal quantifiers.
Sentential Connectives: Building Blocks of Log
Connectives Examples

Sentential connectives are operators that combine For example, "The sky is blue" and "The sun is shining"
propositions, creating compound statements. Common can be combined using "and" to form the compound
connectives include negation, conjunction, disjunction, statement "The sky is blue and the sun is shining". This
implication, and bi-conditional. These connectors define conjunction creates a new statement that expresses the
the relationship between different propositions within a combined truth of both original propositions.
logical argument.
 Truth Values of Arguments and Truth Table
Truth Values Truth Tables
Truth values represent the truth or falsehood of a Truth tables are a systematic way to determine the
proposition. They are typically represented as "T" for truth value of compound propositions based on the
true and "F" for false. truth values of their constituent propositions. They
help visualize the logical relationship between different
statements.
Constructing Truth Tables

1. Identify Propositions
1 Start by identifying the individual propositions within the compound statement.

2. Create Columns
2
Create a column for each proposition and for the compound statement.

3. List Truth Values

3
List all possible combinations of truth values for the propositions.

4. Evaluate Compound Statement

4 Use the truth tables for the connectives to determine the truth
value of the compound statement for each row.
Tautologies, Self-
contradiction, and
Contingency
Tautologies
A tautology is a statement that is always true,
regardless of the truth values of its constituent
propositions. They represent logical truths and are often
used as axioms or fundamental principles in logical
systems.
Example
Logical Expression:
P ∨ ¬P (Law of the Excluded Middle)
Meaning: "A statement (P) or its negation (¬P) must always be true."
Example: "It is either raining or not raining." (Always true)

Mathematical Example:
(A = B) ∨ (A ≠ B)
Meaning: "A is equal to B, or A is not equal to B."
This is always true because one of the two conditions must hold.

Real-World Example:
"Either I will pass the exam, or I will not pass the exam."
This is always true because one of the two possibilities must occur.
Tautologies, Self-
contradiction, and
Contingency
Self-contradiction

A self-contradiction is a statement that is always false,

regardless of its components.
Example:
Logical Expression:
P ∧ ¬P (Law of Contradiction)
Meaning: "A statement (P) and its negation (¬P) cannot both be true at the
same time."
Example: "It is raining and it is not raining at the same time." (Always false)

Mathematical Example:
x>5∧x<3
Meaning: "x is greater than 5 and less than 3 at the same time."
This is always false because no number satisfies both conditions.

Real-World Example:
"I am both alive and dead at the same time."
This is logically impossible (except in quantum physics discussions like
Schrödinger’s cat).
Tautologies, Self-
contradiction, and
Contingency
Contingency
A contingency statement is a statement in which some
3 cases are true and some are false, depending on the
truth value and its propositions.
Example
Logical Expression:
P∧Q
Meaning: "Both P and Q must be true for the statement to be true."
Example: "It is raining and I have an umbrella."
This is true only when both conditions hold. Otherwise, it is false.

Mathematical Example:
x>0
This statement is true for positive numbers but false for negative numbers and
zero.

Real-World Example:
"I will go to the park if it is sunny."
This is not always true; it depends on the weather.
Difference of the 3 statements
Conditional Statement

For a given conditional (if-then) statement, three

related statements can be derived: converse,
inverse, and contrapositive.

Example of Conditional Statement:

"If it rains, then the ground is wet."

(Symbolically: P → Q, where

P = "It rains"
Q = "The ground is wet.")
 Converse, Inverse, and
Contrapositive Statements
1 2
Converse Inverse
The converse of "If p, then q" is "If q, The inverse of "If p, then q" is "If not p,
then p". It reverses the premise and then not q". It negates both the premise
conclusion. and conclusion.

3
Contrapositive
The contrapositive of "If p, then q" is "If
not q, then not p". It negates both the
premise and conclusion, then reverses
them.
Note: The converse and inverse of a conditional statement is not always logically
equivalent to the original statement.
Existential Quantification and
Universal Quantification

Existential Quantification (∃)

Existential quantification states that there exists
at least one element in a domain that satisfies a
given property.

Symbolic Representation:
∃x P(x) = "There exists at least one x such that
P(x) is true.“

Example:
∃x (x² = 4)
"There exists an x such that x squared equals 4."
(True for x = 2 and x = -2)
Existential Quantification and
Universal Quantification

Universal Quantification (∀)

Universal quantification states that a property
holds for all elements in a domain.

Symbolic Representation:
∀x P(x) = "For all x, P(x) is true.“

Example:
∀x (x² ≥ 0)
"For all x, x squared is greater than or equal to
zero.“
(True for all real numbers)
Read and identify the truth value of the following quantifiers:

1. (∃ y ∈ R)(∀ x ∈ R) , x = y^2

2. (∀ x ∈ R | x ≥ 0)(∃ y ∈ R) , x = y^2
Explanation

1. There exists an element y in R such that for all x ∈ R, x^2 = y. This is clearly
false because there is no element y ∈ R such that every real number is equal
to the square of it.

2. For all x ∈ R such that x ≥ 0, there exists an element y ∈ R such that x = y^2.
This is true since there are some elements in x that is equal to the squared of
some elements of y.
Difference Between Existential and Universal Quantification
ACTIVITY 1
A: Create a truth table for the following logical statements. (3
points each)
1. (P V Q) ∧ R
2. (¬R V Q) → P
3. P → (Q ∧ R)

B: Check whether the following propositions are tautologies by

constructing a truth table. (3 points each)
1. P ∨ ¬ R
2. (P V Q) → ¬R
For each case, indicate whether the statement is: Tautology (always true) , Contradiction (always false) , and
Contingency (sometimes true, sometimes false)
ACTIVITY 1
C:Determine whether each of the following statements is
true (T) or false (F). (3 points each)

1. ∀ x ∈ N, x + 1 > x
2. ∃ x ∈ C such that x^2 = -16
3. ∀ x ∈ Z-, x^2 ≥ 0
4. ∃ x ∈ R such that x^2 + 1 = 0
5. ∀ x ∈ W, x − x = 1
ACTIVITY 1
D: Rewrite the following statements using mathematical
symbols and determine if they are true or false. Use x as
the element of each problem. (5 points each)

1. "Every integer is greater than zero.“

2. "There exists a real number whose square is negative.“
3. "For every even number, there exists an odd number
that is greater than it.“
4. "There exists a prime number that is even."