Number Theory
Division:
If a and b are integers with a 0, we say that
a divides b if there is an integer c so that b =
ac.
When a divides b we say that a is a factor of
b and that b is a multiple of a.
The notation a | b means that a divides b.
We write when a does not divide b.
Theorem:
Let a,b, and c be integers, where a ≠ 0. Then
i ) if a | b and a | c, then a | (b + c);
ii) if a | b, then a | bc for all integers c;
iii) if a | b and b | c, then a | c.
Proof:
i)
Suppose that a | b and a | c.
Then there are integers ‘s’ and ‘t’ with b = as
and c = at .
b + c = as + at
= a(s + t)
Therefore, a divides b + c.
ii)
Suppose that a | b .
Then there is integer ‘s’ with b = as.
Mutiplying both sides by an integer c
bc = a(sc)
Therefore, a divides bc.
iii)
Suppose that a | b and b | c.
Then there are integers ‘s’ and ‘t’ with b = as
and c = bt .
c=(as)t
= a(st)
Therefore, a divides c.
Corollary
If a, b, and c are integers, where a ≠ 0, such
that a | b and a | c, then a | mb + nc whenever
m and n are integers.
Proof:
Given that a | b and a | c.
Therefore by part (ii) above theorem a |mb
and a | nc
Now from part (i) of the above theorem it
follows that a|(mb+nc).
The Division Algorithm
Let a be an integer and d a positive integer.
Then there are unique integers q and r, with
0 r < d, such that a = dq + r.
In the above equation,
• d is called the divisor,
• a is called the dividend,
• q is called the quotient, and
• r is called the remainder.
The following notations are used for quotient
and remainder
q = a div d, r = a mod d.
Example:
When we divide 17 by 5, we get
17 = 53 + 2.
• 17 is the dividend,
• 5 is the divisor,
• 3 is called the quotient, and
• 2 is called the remainder.
When we divide -11 by 3 , we have
-11 = 3(-4) + 1.
• -11 is the dividend,
• 3 is the divisor,
• -4 is called the quotient, and
• 1 is called the remainder.
Note: the remainder cannot be negative.
Modular Arithmetic
If a and b are integers and m is a positive
integer, then a is congruent to b modulo m if
m divides a − b.
We use the notation a ≡ b (mod m) to
indicate that a is congruent to b modulo m.
In other words:
a b (mod m) if and only if a mod m = b mod
m
Examples:
Is it true that 46 68 (mod 11) ?
Yes, because 11 | (46 – 68).
Is it true that 46 68 (mod 22)?
Yes, because 22 | (46 – 68).
For which integers z is it true that z 12
(mod 10)?
It is true for any z{…,-28, -18, -8, 2, 12, 22,
32, …}
Theorem:
Let m be a positive integer. The integers a and b
are congruent modulo m if and only if there is an
integer k such that a = b + km.
Proof:
If a ≡ b(mod m) then m | (a − b).
This means that there is an integer k such that a −
b = km. Therefore a = b + km.
Conversely, suppose there is an integer k such that
a= b + km, then km = a − b.
Hence, m divides a − b,
Therefore a ≡ b(mod m).
Theorem:
Let m be a positive integer.
If a b (mod m) and c d (mod m),
then a + c b + d (mod m) and ac bd (mod m).
Proof:
We know that a b (mod m) and c d (mod m)
implies that there are integers s and t with
b = a + sm and d = c + tm.
Therefore,
b + d = (a + sm) + (c + tm)
= (a + c) + m(s + t)
And bd = (a + sm)(c + tm)
= ac + m(at + cs + stm).
Hence, a + c b + d (mod m) and ac bd (mod m).
Arithmetic Modulo m
We can define arithmetic operations on Zm, the set of
nonnegative integers less than m, that is, the set {0, 1,...,m
− 1}.
Addition of these integers, denoted by +m is defined by
a +m b = (a + b) mod m,
where the addition on the right-hand side of this equation is
the ordinary addition of integers.
Multiplication of these integers, denoted by ·m is defined by
a ·m b = (a · b) mod m,
where the multiplication on the right-hand side of this
equation is the ordinary multiplication of integers.
The operations +m and ·m are called addition and
multiplication modulo m respectively.
Example:
find 7 +11 9 and 7 ·11 9.
Solution:
7 +11 9 = (7 + 9) mod 11
= 16 mod 11
=5
7 ·11 9 = (7 · 9)mod 11
= 63 mod 11
=8
Primes:
A positive integer p greater than 1 is called
prime if the only positive factors of p are 1
and p.
A positive integer that is greater than 1 and
is not prime is called composite.
The fundamental theorem of arithmetic:
Every positive integer can be written uniquely
as the product of primes, where the prime
factors are written in order of increasing size.
Examples:
15 = 3·5
48 = 2·2·2·2·3 = 24·3
17 = 17
100 2·2·5·5 = 22·52
=
512 2·2·2·2·2·2·2·2·2 = 29
=
515 5·103
=
28 = 2·2·7 = 22·7
If n is a composite integer, then n has a prime divisor less
than or equal √n .
Proof:
If n is composite then it has a factor a with 1 <a<n.
Hence, by the definition of a factor of a positive integer, we
have n= ab,
Where, b is a positive integer greater than 1.
We will show that a ≤ √n or b ≤ √n.
If a> √n and b> √n, then ab > n, which is a contradiction.
Consequently, a ≤ √n or b ≤ √n.
Because both a and b are divisors of n therefore n has a
positive divisor not exceeding √n.
This divisor is either prime or, by the fundamental theorem of
arithmetic, has a prime divisor less than itself.
In either case, n has a prime divisor less than or equal to √n
There are infinite many primes
The largest prime known has been an integer
of the special form 2p − 1, where p is also
prime. Such primes are called Mersenne
primes.
Twin primes are pairs of primes that differ by
2, such as 3 and
Examples: 5, 5 and 7, 11 and 13, 17 and 19,
and 4967 and 4969
Greatest Common Divisor:
Let a and b be integers, not both zero. The largest
integer d such that d | a and d | b is called the
greatest common divisor of a and b.
The greatest common divisor of a and b is denoted
by gcd(a, b).
Example 1: What is gcd(48, 72) ?
The positive common divisors of 48 and 72 are
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16, and 24, so gcd(48, 72) = 24.
Example 2: What is gcd(19, 72) ?
The only positive common divisor of 19 and 72 is
1, so gcd(19, 72) = 1.
Using prime factorizations:
Suppose that the prime factorizations of the positive
integers a and b are
a = p1a1 p2a2 … pnan , b = p1b1 p2b2 … pnbn ,
where p1 < p2 < … < pn and ai, bi N for 1 i n
gcd(a, b) = p1min(a1, b1) p2min(a2, b2) … pnmin(an, bn)
Example:
a = 60 22 31 51
=
b = 54 21 33 50
=
gcd(a, b) 21 31 50 = 6
=
Relatively prime integers:
Two integers a and b are relatively prime if gcd(a,
b) = 1.
Examples:
Are 15 and 28 relatively prime?
Yes, gcd(15, 28) = 1.
Are 55 and 28 relatively prime?
Yes, gcd(55, 28) = 1.
Are 35 and 28 relatively prime?
No, gcd(35, 28) = 7.
Pairwise Relatively Prime
The integers a1, a2, …, an are pairwise
relatively prime if gcd(ai, aj) = 1 whenever 1
i < j n.
Examples:
Are 15, 17, and 27 pairwise relatively
prime?
No, because gcd(15, 27) = 3.
Are 15, 17, and 28 pairwise relatively
prime?
Least Common Multiple
The least common multiple of the positive
integers a and b is the smallest positive
integer that is divisible by both a and b.
We denote the least common multiple of a
and b by lcm(a, b).
Examples:
lcm(3, 7) 21
=
lcm(4, 6) 12
=
lcm(5, 10) 10
=
Using prime factorizations:
Suppose that the prime factorizations of the positive
integers a and b are
a = p1a1 p2a2 … pnan , b = p1b1 p2b2 … pnbn ,
where p1 < p2 < … < pn and ai, bi N for 1 i n
lcm(a, b) = p1max(a1, b1) p2max(a2, b2) … pnmax(an, bn)
Example:
a = 60 22 31 51
=
b = 54 21 33 50
=
lcm(a, b) 22 33 51 = 4275 = 540
=
a = 60 22 31 51
=
b = 54 21 33 50
=
gcd(a, b) 21 31 50 =6
=
lcm(a, b) 22 33 51 = 540
=
Theorem:
Let a and b be positive integers. Then
ab = gcd(a, b) · lcm(a, b)
Euclidean Algorithm:
The Euclidean Algorithm finds the greatest
common divisor of two integers a and b.
For example, if we want to find gcd(287, 91), we
divide 287 (the larger number) by 91 (the
smaller one):
287 = 913 + 14
Þ 287 - 913 = 14
Þ 287 + 91(-3) = 14
We know that for integers a, b and c,
if a | b, then a | bc for all integers c.
Therefore, any divisor of 91 is also a divisor of
91(-3).
287 + 91(-3) = 14
We also know that for integers a, b and c,
if a | b and a | c, then a | (b + c).
Therefore, any divisor of 287 and 91 must also
be a divisor of 287 + 91(-3), which is 14.
Consequently, the greatest common divisor of
287 and 91 must be the same as the greatest
common divisor of 14 and 91:
gcd(287, 91) = gcd(14, 91).
In the next step, we divide 91 by 14:
91 = 146 + 7
This means that gcd(14, 91) = gcd(14, 7).
So we divide 14 by 7:
14 = 72 + 0
We find that 7 | 14, and thus gcd(14, 7) = 7.
Therefore, gcd(287, 91) = 7.
In pseudocode, the algorithm can be
implemented as follows:
procedure gcd(a, b: positive integers)
x := a
y := b
while y 0
begin
r := x mod y
x := y
y := r
end {x is gcd(a, b)}
