DNA, RNA &

PROTEINS
The molecules of life
 DNA
• Deoxyribonucleic
Acid (DNA)
• is the blueprint for life:
 DNA structure
• DNA is a polymer of
nucleotides

Each nucleotide composed of

Nitrogen Base
Phosphate
Five carbon sugar
 DNA structure
• Nucleic acids are polymers
composed of monomeric
units called nucleotides..
– Functions: it holds the
genetic information and it
serves as the template for
the synthesis of proteins.
– DNA and RNA
 DNA: Complimentary base
pairing
• Adenine pairs with ________

A
• Cytosine pairs with _________

C
 DNA STRUCTURE
• DNA is a ________ helix
• Discovered by
Watson and Crick
 DNA AND RNA STRUCTURE
The sugar is a 5- carbon
Pentose, Ribose is the
pentose in RNA and
deoxyribose is the pentose in
DNA. The two pentoses differ
in chemical structure. in
ribose, oxygen is attached to
carbon 2 while in deoxyribose
there is no atom attached to
carbon 2
 DNA AND RNA STRUCTURE
The phosphate group consists of a
phosphorus atom at the center and four
oxygen atoms. It is also present in
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the energy
currency of the cell.
A nitrogen base is a nitrogen-containing
molecule that acts as a base.
 Four DNA bases
• Four kinds of nitrogenous bases:
• Purine bases

• Pyrimidine bases
 DNA AND RNA STRUCTURE
The 3 structures of the nucleotide are held by a
covalent bond. The pentose and nitrogen bases
are held by the glycosidic covalent bond and the
phosphate group is attached to pentose by an
Esther covalent bond. The nucleotides bind
together to form a long polynucleotide with a
sugar-phosphate backbone
 DNA VS RNA
 A DNA is located in the nucleus of the cell,
mitochondria, and the chloroplast of a plant cell. A
DNA is made up of long chains of nucleotides.
 RNA carries the genetic information from the DNA in
the nucleus to the cytoplasm of the cell. It is involved
in the synthesis of the protein needed by the body. In
RNA, the bases are Adenine (A) pairs with Uracil (U)
and Guanine (G) pairs with Cytosine (C)..
 DNA VS RNA
 It has three types based on functions (:
messenger RNA (mRNA) directs protein
synthesis, originated from the nucleus of
the cell; ribosome RNA (rRNA) site of
protein synthesis; transfer RNA (tRNA)
serves as the adaptor molecules during
protein synthesis.
ACTIVITY
DNA REPLICATION
(in the nucleus)
 DNA Replication

•First an enzyme DNA topoisomerase

untangles the coils
•Next: Enzymes called “Helicase”
“unzip” the DNA molecule exposing
both strands nitrogenous bases.
The DNA is separated into two
strands.
 DNA Replication
Then: (enzyme) DNA polymerase pairs the bases
A-T and G-C.

DNA Polymerase checks work and corrects

mistakes ….

Nucleotides are paired

DNA ligase (enzyme) follows behind and bonds

the nucleotides together.
 DNA Replication
•The process is fast and
accurate
an error occurs in only
about one of a billion
nucleotides.
DNA replication begins at
specific sites called
origins of replication.
The copying proceeds
outward in both
directions, creating
replication "bubbles".
•A eukaryotic DNA molecule has many
origins where replication can start at
the same time.
•This shortens the total time to copy all
the DNA. Eventually, all the bubbles
merge
•End product: two double-stranded
DNA molecules, each with one new
and one old strand.
DNA replication occurs before a
cell divides, ensuring that the
cells in a multicellular organism
all carry the same genetic
information.
It is also the mechanism for
producing the DNA copies that
 DNA replication

•The resulting double-stranded

DNA molecules are identical;
proofreading and error-checking
mechanisms exist
 RNA structure and synthesis
• RNA: RIBONUCLEIC ACID
• Is very similar to DNA
(repeating subunits, nucleotides).

• Difference between RNA and DNA:

1. Each nucleotide contains a different sugar:
RIBOSE instead of deoxyribose.
2. Bases are A, G, C, and U (URACIL)
A pairs with U; G pairs with C
 RNA
3. RNA is single stranded and shorter
 CENTRAL DOGMA
transcription

DNA translation

RNA
Proteins
• 3 different RNA molecules involved in
protein synthesis:
mRNA (messenger RNA)
rRNA (ribosomal RNA
tRNA (transfer RNA)
 PROTEIN SYTNESIS
• 1 step: Transcription
occurs in the nucleus
• 2 step: Translation
occurs in the cytoplasm
 1st step
Transcription: DNA  RNA
•Transcription occurs in the nucleus

First: DNA unwinds in a section

Next: mRNA (messenger RNA) is formed by base pairing

with the parent strand of DNA. This begins
transcription.

Then: mRNA carries the message about what type of protein to

make from the DNA in the nucleus to the ribosome
 Transcription
• Once mRNA is formed, enzymes in the nucleus
remove the
Introns (noncoding message)
and leave the
Exons (good message)
 The Genetic Code
• Each 3 consecutive bases on the mRNA is a code word,
CODON, that specifies an amino acid.

• The genetic code consists of 64 codons,

• but only 61 code amino acids.
• Three codons act as
signal to stop the process

• One codon, AUG, codes

for methionine, and is also
the Start signal for translation.
 2nd step
Translation: RNA  Protein
• Translation: synthesizing a code from amino
acids, according to the sequences of the
nucleotides in mRNA.
• Occurs at the ribosome, in cytoplasm of cell
• Ribosomal RNA, rRNA, is needed for protein
synthesis – helps mRNA bind to the ribosome
• tRNA, brings specific amino acids to the
ribosome to be assembled as proteins.
 Translation
• Ribosomes are the sites of ______________
 Transfer RNA (tRNA)
• Transport molecule
that carries specific
amino acid to a
ribosome

• Each tRNA recognizes

the correct codon on
the mRNA molecule
Translation
 Steps in Translation
1. mRNA leaves the nucleus and migrates to ribosome
2. mRNA binds to small ribosomal subunit
3. tRNA brings an amino acid to the ribosome, where
anticodon on the tRNA binds to the codon of the
mRNA
4. The amino acid bonds to its adjoining amino acid to
form a growing polypeptide molecule
5. The tRNA without the amino acid is released from the
ribosome
6. Other tRNA’s bring amino acids to the ribosome to
complete the protein molecule
Protein translation
 Protein synthesis

• Occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell

Guide Questions:
1. What is DNA replication?
________________________________________________
2. Compare and contrast transcription and translation?
____________________________________________________
3. How is the tRNA base sequence similar to the original strand?
____________________________________________________
4. What is the final product of translation?
____________________________________________________
Summary:
 Important
• Both DNA and RNA have a direction: one
end is the 3’ the other is the 5’ end.
• Thus, codons are read in one direction only.

• Also, note there is redundancy in the genetic

code: the different sequences can specify for
the same amino acid.
Example: _______________= Leucine
 When things go wrong…
• Mutations: changes in the DNA sequence, that may be
passed along to future generations.
• Point mutations: a single base substitution
THE CAT SAW THE RAT
THE CAT SAW THE HAT
• Deletion: a small DNA segment is lost

• Insertion: a segment of DNA is added

• Frame-shift mutation: modification of the reading

frame after a deletion or insertion, resulting in all
codons downstreams being different.
 Somatic Mutations
• ___________ mutations: occur in body cells,
or cells that do not lead to gametes.
• Somatic mutations that occur in leaves, roots
or stems are usually not passed on to future
generations…
• UNLESS the plant reproduces ____________
MUTATIONS
Genes carry genetic information and are composed of
DNA. Analyze the messages in each DNA strand and
follow the instructions in each item.

1. DNA strand: TAC CTC ATG CAA ACT

a.Provide the mRNA for the DNA strand above.
b.b. Use the genetic code chart in What’s In to identify
the five amino acids coded.
2. Replace the thymine in the second codon with an
adenine.
a.What happened to the sequence of mRNA?
b. Are the amino acids the same? Why?
3. Replace the last adenine (A) in the fourth codon with
4. Replace guanine (G) in the third codon with
cytosine (C)
a.What happened to the sequence of mRNA?
b.b. Are the amino acids the same? Why?

5. Remove the 6th nitrogen base.

a. What happened to the reading frame?
b. Will the amino acid sequence change because of
the removal of the 6th nitrogen base? Why?

6. Add a cytosine after the first codon.

a. What happened to the reading frame?
b. Will the amino acid sequence change with the
Gene mutation or point mutation is a change in
one or few nucleotides in a single gene while
chromosomal mutation is a change in the
structure and expression of the genes in the
chromosome. Mutation differs in its effects on
protein structure and function. The effect on the
genetic makeup can be harmless, harmful, or
helpful.

A point mutation can be due to base-pair

substitution and base-pair addition or deletion
Missense mutation occurs when
the coded amino acid is
functionally different from the
original. This change usually has
harmful effects because of the
change in the structure and
function of the protein.
Nonsense Mutation occurs when
the coded amino acid cut short
the translation of
mRNA. Like missense, the
nonsense mutation can be
dangerous to the function of the
Translocation is the movement of a segment of
the chromosome to a nonhomologous
chromosome.
Inversion is the transfer of a chromosome
segment within the chromosome. A deletion
occurs when a segment of a chromosome
If the change in DNA sequence occurs in the
body cells or autosomal like the skin, it
is called a somatic mutation. If the affected DNA
is in the sex cells or gametes it is
called a germline mutation.

The errors that occur during DNA replication,

repair, or recombination are called a
spontaneous mutation.