Data Communication &

Networking
Unit – I
Prof. Rupali A. Meshram
 Data Communication
• The term telecommunication means
communication at a distance. The word data
refers to information presented in whatever
form is agreed upon by the parties creating
and using the data. Data communications are
the exchange of data between two devices via
some form of transmission medium such as a
wire cable.
Five components of data
communication
 Data Representation
• Information comes in different forms-
1. Text
2. Numbers
3. Images
4. Audio
5. Video
Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-
duplex)
 NETWORKS
• A network is a set of devices (often referred to
as nodes) connected by communication links.
A node can be a computer, printer, or any
other device capable of sending and/or
receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network.
 Network Criteria
• Performance
-throughput
-delay
• Reliability
• Security
 Network Criteria
• Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and
response time.
1. Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from
one device to another.
2. Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.

• The performance of a network depends on a number of factors, including

the number of users, the type of transmission medium, the capabilities of
the connected hardware, and the efficiency of the software.

• Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput

and delay.
 Network Criteria
• Reliability:
In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is
measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a
link to recover from a failure, and the network’s
robustness in a catastrophe.

• Security:
Network security issues include protecting data from
unauthorized access, protecting data from damage and
development, and implementing policies and procedures
for recovery from breaches and data losses.
 Physical Structures
(Types of connections)
point-to-point :
• connection provides a dedicated link between two devices.
• The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission
between those two devices.
• Most point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire
or cable to connect the two ends, but other options, such as
microwave or satellite links, are also possible
 Physical Structures
(Types of connections)
Multipoint:
• A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which
more than two specific devices share a single link.
• In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is
shared, either spatially or temporally.
• If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially
shared connection.
Categories of topology
 A fully connected mesh topology (five
devices)
•every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device.
•The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two devices
it connects.
•we need n (n – 1) / 2 duplex-mode links.
 Mesh Advantages
1. The use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own
data load, thus eliminating the traffic problems that can occur when links must
be shared by multiple devices.

2. A mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate
the entire system.

3. There is the advantage of privacy or security. When every message travels along
a dedicated line, only the intended recipient sees it. Physical boundaries prevent
other users from gaining access to messages.

4. Point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy. Traffic can
be routed to avoid links with suspected problems. This facility enables the
network manager to discover the precise location of the fault and aids in finding
its cause and solution.
 Mesh Disadvantages
1. Because every device must be connected to
every other device, installation and
reconnection are difficult.
2. The sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater
than the available space (in walls, ceilings, or
floors) can accommodate.
3. The hardware required to connect each link
(I/O ports and cable) can be prohibitively
expensive.
 A star topology connecting four
stations
Star Topology:
•each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller, usually
called a hub.
•The devices are not directly linked to one another.
•does not allow direct traffic between devices.
•The controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send data to another, it
sends the data to the controller, which then relays the data to the other connected
device
 Star Advantages
1. A star topology is less expensive than a mesh
topology.
2. easy to install and reconfigure.
3. robustness.
4. easy fault identification and fault isolation.
5. it can be used to monitor link problems and
bypass defective links.
 Star Disadvantages
1. Star topology is the dependency of the whole
topology on one single point, the hub. If the
hub goes down, the whole system is dead.

Use of Star topology

 The star topology is used in local-area
networks (LANs). High-speed LANs often use
a star topology with a central hub.
 A bus topology connecting three
stations
Bus topology:
•It is multipoint.
•One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a network.
•Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps.
•A drop line is a connection running between the device and the main
cable.
•A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures
the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the metallic core.
 Bus Advantages
• ease of installation.

• Backbone cable can be laid along the most

efficient path, and then connected to the
nodes by drop lines of various lengths. In this
way, a bus uses less cabling than mesh or star
topologies.
 Bus Disadvantages
1. Difficult reconnection and fault isolation.
2. A bus is usually designed to be optimally efficient at installation. It can
therefore be difficult to add new devices.
3. Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality. This
degradation can be controlled by limiting the number and spacing of
devices connected to a given length of cable.
4. Adding new devices may therefore require modification or replacement of
the backbone.
5. fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission, even between devices
on the same side of the problem.

Use of Bus topology

 Traditional Ethernet LANs can use a bus topology, but they are
less popular.
A ring topology connecting six stations
Ring topology:
•each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the two devices on
either side of it.
•A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device, until it
reaches its destination.
•Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater.
•Repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along.
 Ring Advantages
1. easy to install and reconfigure.
2. To add or delete a device requires changing only two
connections.
3. The only constraints are media and traffic considerations
(maximum ring length and number of devices).
4. Fault isolation is simplified.
5. Generally, in a ring a signal is circulating at all times. If
one device does not receive a signal within a specified
period, it can issue an alarm. The alarm alerts the
network operator to the problem and its location.
 Ring Disadvantages
1. However, unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage.
In a simple ring, a break in the ring (such as a disabled
station) can disable the entire network. This weakness
can be solved by using a dual ring or a switch capable
of closing off the break.

Use of Ring topology

Ring topology was prevalent when IBM introduced its
local-area network, Token Ring. Today, the need for
higher-speed LANs has made this topology less popular.
 Network Types
• LAN (Local Area Network)
• MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
• WAN (Wide Area Network)
 Network Types
(LAN)

Fig: An isolated LAN in the past and today

 LAN
• A local area network (LAN) is usually
privately owned and connects some hosts in
a single office, building, or campus.
• Each host in a LAN has an identifier, an
address that uniquely defines the host in the
LAN.
MAN
 MAN
• MAN is designed to extend over an entire city.

• It may be a single network, or it may be a means of

connecting number of LAN’s into a larger n/w so
that resources may be shared LAN to LAN as well as
device to device.

• A MAN may be wholly owned and operated by a

private company or service provided by a public
company.
WAN
 WAN
• A wide area network (WAN) is also an
interconnection of devices capable of
communication.

• A LAN is normally limited in size, spanning an

office, a building, or a campus; a WAN has a
wider geographical span, spanning a town, a
state, a country, or even the world.
 WAN
• A LAN interconnects hosts; a WAN
interconnects connecting devices such as
switches, routers, or modems.

• A LAN is normally privately owned by the

organization that uses it; a WAN is normally
created and run by communication companies
and leased by an organization that uses it.
WAN
InterNetwork
A Heterogeneous Network Made Of
Four Wans And Three Lans
 Switching
• An internet is a switched network in which a
switch connects at least two links together.

• A switch needs to forward data from a network

to another network when required.

• The two most common types of switched

networks are circuit-switched and packet-
switched networks.
Circuit-switched Network
Packet-switched networks
 The Internet
• The Internet has revolutionized many aspects
of our daily lives. It has affected the way we do
business as well as the way we spend our
leisure time. The Internet is a communication
system that has brought a wealth of
information to our fingertips and organized it
for our use.
The Internet
 Accessing the Internet
• Using Telephone Networks:
1. Dial-up service:
2. DSL Service:
• Using Cable Networks:
• Using Wireless Networks:
• Direct Connection to the Internet:
 Standards and Administration
• Internet Standards:
-An Internet standard is a thoroughly tested specification
that is useful to and adhered to by those who work with
the Internet.

-An Internet draft is a working document (a work in

progress) with no official status and a six-month lifetime.

-Upon recommendation from the Internet authorities, a

draft may be published as a Request for Comment (RFC).
Maturity Levels of an RFC
 Requirement Levels of an RFC
RFCs are classified into five requirement levels:
1. Required
2. Recommended
3. Elective
4. Limited use
5. Not Recommended.
Internet Administration
 Network Models
PROTOCOL LAYERING:
• In data communication and networking, a protocol defines the
rules that both the sender and receiver and all intermediate
devices need to follow to be able to communicate effectively.

-When communication is simple, we may need only one

simple protocol.

-When the communication is complex, we may need to divide

the task between different layers, in which case we need a
protocol at each layer, or protocol layering.
 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
• TCP/IP is a protocol suite (a set of protocols organized in different
layers) used in the Internet today.

• It is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, each of

which provides a specific functionality.

• The term hierarchical means that each upper level protocol is

supported by the services provided by one or more lower level
protocols.

• The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as four software layers
built upon the hardware. Today, however, TCP/IP is thought of as a
five-layer model.
Layered Architecture
Layered Architecture
Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite
Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite
Network Architecture
Network Architecture
Network Architecture
Network Architecture
Network Architecture
 Physical Layer
• Responsible for carrying individual bits in a frame across the link.

• lowest level in the TCP/IP protocol suite

• logical communication because there is another, hidden layer, the

transmission media, under the physical layer

• Two devices are connected by a transmission medium (cable or air)

• Transmission medium does not carry bits; it carries electrical or optical

signals

• Contains several protocols that transform a bit to a signal.

 Data-link Layer
• An internet is made up of several links (LANs and WANs) connected
by routers.

• When the next link to travel is determined by the router, the data-link
layer is responsible for taking the datagram and moving it across the
link.

• The link can be a wired LAN with a link-layer switch, a wireless LAN,
a wired WAN, or a wireless WAN.

• Different protocols used with any link type.

• Data-link layer is responsible for moving the packet through the link.
 Data-link Layer
• TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol for the
data-link layer.

• It supports all the standard and proprietary protocols.

• Any protocol that can take the datagram and carry it

through the link suffices for the network layer.

• The data-link layer takes a datagram and encapsulates it

in a packet called a frame.
 Network Layer
• The network layer is responsible for creating a
connection between the source computer and the
destination computer.

• The communication at the network layer is host-to-host.

• The network layer in the Internet includes the main

protocol, Internet Protocol (IP) that defines the format
of the packet, called a datagram at the network layer.
 Network Layer
• IP also defines the format and the structure of
addresses used in this layer.

• IP is also responsible for routing a packet from its source

to its destination, which is achieved by each router
forwarding the datagram to the next router in its path.

• IP is a connectionless protocol that provides no flow

control, no error control, and no congestion control
services.
 Network Layer
• The network layer also includes unicast (one-
to-one) and multicast (one-to-many) routing
protocols.

• The network layer also has some auxiliary

protocols that help IP in its delivery and
routing tasks.
Like ICMP,IGMP,DHCP and ARP
 Transport Layer
• The logical connection at the transport layer is also end-to-end.

• The transport layer at the source host gets the message from the
application layer, encapsulates it in a transport layer packet
(called a segment or a user datagram in different protocols) and
sends it, through the logical connection, to the transport layer at
the destination host.

• The transport layer is responsible for giving services to the

application layer: to get a message from an application program
running on the source host and deliver it to the corresponding
application program on the destination host.
 Transport Layer
• Transport-layer protocols
-Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
- User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

• TCP is a connection-oriented protocol

• It creates a logical pipe between two TCPs for

transferring a stream of bytes.

• flow control, error control and congestion control

 Transport Layer
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a connectionless protocol that transmits user
datagram’s without first creating a logical connection.

• In UDP, each user datagram is an independent entity without being related to

the previous or the next one (the meaning of the term connectionless).

• UDP is a simple protocol that does not provide flow, error, or congestion control.

• Its simplicity, which means small overhead, is attractive to an application

program that needs to send short messages and cannot afford the
retransmission of the packets involved in TCP, when a packet is corrupted or lost.

• A new protocol, Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) is designed to

respond to new applications that are emerging in the multimedia.
 Application Layer
• The logical connection between the two application layers is end-to-end.

• The two application layers exchange messages between each other as though there
were a bridge between the two layers.

• However, we should know that the communication is done through all the layers.

• Communication at the application layer is between two processes (two programs

running at this layer).

• To communicate, a process sends a request to the other process and receives a

response. Process-to-process communication is the duty of the application layer.

• The application layer in the Internet includes many predefined protocols, but a user
can also create a pair of processes to be run at the two hosts.
 Application Layer
• The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a vehicle for accessing the World Wide Web
(WWW).

• The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is the main protocol used in electronic mail (e-
mail) service.

• The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is used for transferring files from one host to another.

• The Terminal Network (TELNET) and Secure Shell (SSH) are used for accessing a site
remotely.

• The Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is used by an administrator to manage

the Internet at global and local levels.

• The Domain Name System (DNS) is used by other protocols to find the network-layer address
of a computer.

• The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is used to collect membership in a group.
Encapsulation And Decapsulation
 Encapsulation at the Source Host
1. At the application layer, the data to be exchanged is referred to as a
message. A message normally does not contain any header or trailer.

2. The transport layer takes the message as the payload, the load that the
transport layer should take care of. The transport layer then passes the
packet to the network layer.

3. The network layer takes the transport-layer packet as data or payload and
adds its own header to the payload. The network layer then passes the
packet to the data-link layer.

4. The data-link layer takes the network-layer packet as data or payload and
adds its own header. The frame is passed to the physical layer for
transmission
 Decapsulation and Encapsulation at the
Router
• After the set of bits are delivered to the data-link layer, this layer decapsulates
the datagram from the frame and passes it to the network layer.

• The network layer only inspects the source and destination addresses in the
datagram header and consults its forwarding table to find the next hop to
which the datagram is to be delivered.

• The contents of the datagram should not be changed by the network layer in
the router unless there is a need to fragment the datagram if it is too big to
be passed through the next link. The datagram is then passed to the data-link
layer of the next link.

• The data-link layer of the next link encapsulates the datagram in a frame and
passes it to the physical layer for transmission.
Decapsulation at the Destination Host
• At the destination host, each layer only
decapsulates the packet received, removes
the payload, and delivers the payload to the
next-higher layer protocol until the message
reaches the application layer.

• It is necessary to say that decapsulation in the

host involves error checking.
 ADDRESSING IN THE TCP/IP PROTOCOL
SUITE
• Any communication that involves two parties needs
two addresses: source address and destination
address.

• Although it looks as if we need five pairs of addresses,

one pair per layer, we normally have only four because
the physical layer does not need addresses.

• The unit of data exchange at the physical layer is a bit,

which definitely cannot have an address.
ADDRESSING IN THE TCP/IP PROTOCOL
SUITE
 ADDRESSING IN THE TCP/IP PROTOCOL
SUITE
• At the application layer, we normally use names to define the site that provides
services, such as someorg.com, or the e-mail address, such as
[email protected].

• At the transport layer, addresses are called port numbers, and these define the
application-layer programs at the source and destination. Port numbers are local
addresses that distinguish between several programs running at the same time.

• At the network-layer, the addresses are global, with the whole Internet as the
scope. A network-layer address uniquely defines the connection of a device to the
Internet.

• The link-layer addresses, sometimes called MAC addresses, are locally defined
addresses, each of which defines a specific host or router in a network (LAN or
WAN).
 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
• Since the TCP/IP protocol suite uses several protocols at some
layers.

• Multiplexing at the source and demultiplexing at the destination.

• Multiplexing in this case means that a protocol at a layer can

encapsulate a packet from several next-higher layer protocols
(one at a time).

• Demultiplexing means that a protocol can decapsulate and

deliver a packet to several next-higher layer protocols (one at a
time).
 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
• To be able to multiplex and demultiplex, a protocol needs to have a
field in its header to identify to which protocol the encapsulated
packets belong.

• At the transport layer, either UDP or TCP can accept a message from
several application-layer protocols.

• At the network layer, IP can accept a segment from TCP or a user

datagram from UDP. IP can also accept a packet from other protocols
such as ICMP, IGMP, and so on.

• At the data-link layer, a frame may carry the payload coming from IP or
other protocols such as ARP.
 THE OSI MODEL
• An ISO standard that covers all aspects of
network communications is the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model.

• It was first introduced in the late 1970s.

• ISO is the organization; OSI is the model.

OSI Model
 OSI Model
• An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two different systems to communicate
regardless of their underlying architecture.

• The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to facilitate communication between
different systems without requiring changes to the logic of the underlying hardware and
software.

• The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model for understanding and designing a network
architecture that is flexible, robust, and interoperable.

• The OSI model was intended to be the basis for the creation of the protocols in the OSI
stack.

• The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that allows
communication between all types of computer systems. It consists of seven separate but
related layers, each of which defines a part of the process of moving information across a
network
 OSI versus TCP/IP
• When we compare the two models, we find that
two layers, session and presentation, are missing
from the TCP/IP protocol suite. These two layers
were not added to the TCP/IP protocol suite after
the publication of the OSI model.

• The application layer in the suite is usually

considered to be the combination of three layers
in the OSI model
OSI versus TCP/IP
 LACK OF OSI MODEL’S SUCCESS
• First, OSI was completed when TCP/IP was fully in place and a
lot of time and money had been spent on the suite; changing it
would cost a lot.

• Second, some layers in the OSI model were never fully defined.

• Third, when OSI was implemented by an organization in a

different application, it did not show a high enough level of
performance to entice (meaning attract) the Internet authority
to switch from the TCP/IP protocol suite to the OSI model.
 Transmission Media
• Transmission media are actually located below
the physical layer and are directly controlled
by the physical layer
 Transmission Media
• A transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything
that can carry information from a source to a destination.

• In data communications the definition of the information

and the transmission medium is more specific.

• The transmission medium is usually free space, metallic

cable, or fiber-optic cable.

• The information is usually a signal that is the result of a

conversion of data from another form.
Types of Transmission Media
 GUIDED MEDIA
• A signal traveling along any of these media is
directed and contained by the physical limits of the
medium.

• Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper)

conductors that accept and transport signals in the
form of electric current.

• Optical fiber is a cable that accepts and transports

signals in the form of light.
 TWISTED-PAIR CABLE
• A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally
copper), each with its own plastic insulation, twisted
together.
• One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver,
and the other is used only as a ground reference.
• By twisting the pairs, a balance is maintained.
 Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair
Cable
• The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is
referred to as unshielded twisted pair (UTP).

• IBM has also produced a version of twisted-pair cable for its use, called
shielded twisted-pair (STP); STP cable has a metal foil or braided mesh
covering that encases each pair of insulated conductors.
 COAXIAL CABLE
• Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than
those in twisted pair cable, in part because the two media are
constructed quite differently.

• coax has a central core conductor of solid or stranded wire (usually

copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn, encased in
an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the two
 FIBER-OPTIC CABLE
• A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits
signals in the form of light.

• Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel.

A glass or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less
dense glass or plastic.
 UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS
• Unguided medium transport electromagnetic
waves without using a physical conductor.

• This type of communication is often referred to

as wireless communication.

• Signals are normally broadcast through free

space and thus are available to anyone who has
a device capable of receiving them.
PROPAGATION METHODS
 RADIO WAVES
• Although there is no clear-cut demarcation between radio
waves and microwaves

• electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3

kHz and 1 GHz are normally called radio waves

• waves ranging in frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are

called microwaves.

• Radio waves, particularly those waves that propagate in the

sky mode, can travel long distances
 SWITCHING
• switched network consists of a series of interlinked nodes,
called switches.

• Switches are devices capable of creating temporary

connections between two or more devices linked to the switch.
Three Methods Of Switching
 Switching and TCP/IP Layers
• Switching at Physical Layer:- circuit switching.
The switches at the physical layer allow signals to travel in one path or
another.

• Switching at Data-Link Layer: - packet switching.

Packet switching is normally done using a virtual-circuit approach.

• Switching at Network Layer: - packet switching.

either a virtual-circuit approach or a datagram approach can be used.
Currently the Internet uses a datagram approach, but the tendency is to
move to a virtual-circuit approach.

• Switching at Application Layer:-message switching.

The communication at the application layer occurs by exchanging messages.
 THREE PHASES
• SETUP PHASE: Before the two parties can communicate, a
dedicated circuit needs to be established. The end systems are
normally connected through dedicated lines to the switches,
so connection setup means creating dedicated channels
between the switches.

• DATA TRANSFER PHASE: After the establishment of the

dedicated circuit (channels), the two parties can transfer data.

• TEARDOWN PHASE: When one of the parties needs to

disconnect, a signal is sent to each switch to release the
resources.
 Packet Switching
• If the message is going to pass through a packet-switched
network, it needs to be divided into packets of fixed or
variable size.

• The size of the packet is determined by the network and the

governing protocol.

• there is no resource allocation for a packet.

• there is no reserved bandwidth on the links, and there is no

scheduled processing time for each packet
Datagram Networks
 Datagram Networks
• The datagram networks are sometimes referred to as
connectionless networks.

• The term connectionless here means that the switch (packet

switch) does not keep information about the connection
state.

• There are no setup or teardown phases.

• Each packet is treated the same by a switch regardless of its

source or destination.
 Routing Table
• each switch has a routing table which is based
on the destination address.

• The routing tables are dynamic and are updated

periodically.

• The destination addresses and the

corresponding forwarding output ports are
recorded in the tables.
Routing Table
 Virtual-circuit Networks
• A virtual-circuit network is a cross between a circuit-
switched network and a datagram network. It has
some characteristics of both.

• there are setup and teardown phases in addition to

the data transfer phase.

• Resources can be allocated during the setup phase,

as in a circuit-switched network, or on demand, as in
a datagram network.
 Virtual-circuit Networks
Global Addressing:
• A source or a destination needs to have a
global address—an address that can be unique
in the scope of the network or internationally

• if the network is part of an international

network.
 Virtual-circuit Networks
• Virtual-Circuit Identifier:
• The identifier that is actually used for data transfer is called the
virtual-circuit identifier (VCI) or the label.

• A VCI, unlike a global address, is a small number that has only

switch scope; it is used by a frame between two switches.

• When a frame arrives at a switch, it has a VCI; when it leaves, it

has a different VCI.

• VCI does not need to be a large number since each switch can use
its own unique set of VCIs.