neuropsychology

The Central Nervous System

Central Nervous
System:

• Brain
• Spinal cord
• Brain: a large mass of neurons, glia
and other supporting cells
• Structure is soft and jelly like
• Considerable weight of human brain
(app 1400 g)
 CNS Protection
• Hair, skin, cranium/ tough
bony skull
• Meninges
• Pool of Cerebrospinal
fluid
• Chemically guarded by
Blood brain barrier
• Spinal cord by vertebral
column
Neuroglia (supporting cells)
 Meninges
• NS (brain and spinal cord), cranial and
spinal nerves and peripheral ganglia is
covered by the tough, protective
connective sheath of tissues
(meninges)
• Consists of three layers
1.Dura matter (hard mother): thick, tough,
flexible but un stretchable outer layer.
2.Arachnoid membrane: middle layer,
web like appearance, soft and spongy,
lies beneath the dura matter
3. Pia mater (pious mother): closely
attached to brain and spinal cord
(smaller surface blood vessels of brain
and spinal cord are contained within) as
well as following every surface
convolution.
 Meningeal Layers
• Meningeal layer of the brain cushion
and protect delicate neural tissue

Figure 9-4b
 Cerebrospinal Fluid
• Between pia mater and arachnoid membrane
is a gap called subarachnoid space. This
space is filled with a liquid called
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
• Shock absorbing medium, reduced shock due
to sudden head movement
• Provides a optimum and stable environment
for generating nerve impulses
• Provides a medium for the exchange of
nutrients and wastes between blood and
nervous tissue
 Cerebrospinal Fluid
• Human brain floats in the bath of CSF
contained within the subarachnoid space. It
reduced its net weight to app 80g
• Formed by selective transport across
ependymal cells
• Total Volume of CSF is 125-150 ml and is
replaced > 3 times/day, flow maintained by 10
mmHg pressure gradient
• Continuous process of production,
circulation and reabsorption
• Path: ventricles  subarachnoid space,
reabsorbed into blood in Dural sinuses
through arachnoid villi
 Ventricular system of Brain
• Brain contain series of hollow,
interconnected chambers (ventricles)
filled with CSF.
• Largest chamber (lateral ventricle)------
connected to 3rd ventricle (located at
the midline of the brain and its walls
divide the surrounding part of the brain
into symmetrical halves
• A bridge of neural tissues (massa
intermedia) crosses through the middle
of the 3rd ventricle and serve as
convenient reference point
• The cerebral acqueduct (a long tube)
connects the 3rd ventricle with the 4th
ventricle.
• CSF extracted from blood and in
composition resembles that of blood
plasma
• CSF produced by special tissues with
rich blood supply (Choroid plexus)
produced into all four ventricles.
 Blood Brain Barrier
• Extensive capillaries & sinuses (connected system of hollow cavities
in the skull)
• Tight junctions promoted by astrocytes
• Limits permeability for most molecules except O2, CO2, alcohol,
steroids, H2O
• Protects brain: hormones & circulating chemicals
• Protects CNS from chemical fluctuations
• Prevents entry of harmful substances
• Prevents entry of molecules that could act as neurotransmitters
• Brain receives 15% - 20% of direct blood pumped by heart
• Brain responsible for about half of body’s glucose consumption
• Membrane transporters move glucose from plasma into the brain
interstitial (space between structures or objects) fluid
BBB
 Brain Organization
• Trillion interneurons fill the brain
• Up to 200,000 synapses each
• Levels of complexity
– Cerebral cortex
– Basal nuclei
– Thalamus
– Hypothalamus
– Cerebellum
– Brain stem
 Brain component

Cerebral cortex
Cerebral cortex

Basal nuclei
(lateral to thalamus)
Basal nuclei

Thalamus
(medial) Thalamus

Hypothalamus
Hypothalamus
Cerebellum
Cerebellum

Midbrain
Brain stem
Brain stem Pons (midbrain, pons,
and medulla)
Medulla Spinal cord
 Major Functions
Brain component

1. Sensory perception
Cerebral cortex 2. Voluntary control of movement
3. Language
4. Personality traits
5. Sophisticated mental events, such as thinking memory,
decision making, creativity, and self-consciousness

Basal nuclei 1. Inhibition of muscle tone

2. Coordination of slow, sustained movements
3. Suppression of useless patterns of movements
1. Relay station for all synaptic input
Thalamus
2. Crude awareness of sensation
3. Some degree of consciousness
4. Role in motor control

1. Regulation of many homeostatic functions, such as temperature

Hypothalamus control, thirst, urine output, and food intake
2. Important link between nervous and endocrine systems
3. Extensive involvement with emotion and basic behavioral patterns
1. Maintenance of balance
Cerebellum
2. Enhancement of muscle tone
3. Coordination and planning of skilled voluntary muscle activity

Brain stem 1. Origin of majority of peripheral cranial nerves

(midbrain, pons, 2. Cardiovascular, respiratory, and digestive control centers
and medulla) 3. Regulation of muscle reflexes involved with equilibrium and posture
4. Reception and integration of all synaptic input from spinal cord;
arousal and activation of cerebral cortex
5. Role in sleep-wake cycle
Brain Overview
The Forebrain
 Cerebrum
• Cerebrum is the largest and the most prominent part of
the brain
• Telencephalon ----- 2 symmetrical halves ( cerebral
hemispheres) make up cerebrum
• Cerebral hemispheres are covered with cerebral cortex
and contains limbic system and basal ganglia
• Highly developed area
• Makes up about 80% of total brain weight (largest
portion of brain)
• Its inner core houses the basal nuclei
• Outer surface is highly convoluted and named as
cerebral cortex
– Highest, most complex integrating area of the brain
– Plays key role in most sophisticated neural functions
Role of Cerebral Hemispheres
 Cerebral Cortex
• Structure: greatly convoluted
• Convolutions consisted of sulci (small
grooves), fissures (large grooves) and gyri
(bulges between adjacent sulci and fissures)
• Three specializations
– Sensory areas - sensory input translated
into perception
– Motor areas - direct skeletal muscle
movement
– Association areas - integrate information
from sensory and motor areas, can direct
voluntary behaviors
 Cerebral Cortex
• Each half of cortex divided into four major lobes
– Occipital lobe - carries out initial processing of
visual input

– Temporal lobe - initial reception of sound

sensation, taste, smell

– Parietal lobe - somatosensory processing

(touch, pressure, pain, temperature, position,
movement, vibration

– Frontal lobe responsible for

• Voluntary motor activity
• Speaking ability
• Elaboration of thought
• Gray matter: contains the cell bodies,
dendrites and the axon terminals,
where all synapses are.
• White matter is made up of axons,
which connect different parts of grey
matter to each other
 Language
•Primary areas of cortical specialization for language
–Broca’s area governs speaking ability
–Wernicke’s area
•Concerned with language comprehension
•Responsible for formulating coherent patterns of speech

Figure 9-23: Cerebral processing of spoken and visual language

Functional Areas of the Cerebral Cortex

Figure 9-15
Function of Lobes
Brain Function: Cerebral Lateralization
• Each lobe has special functions

Figure 9-16
 a. Telencephalon

• Cerebral Cortex
• Schematic Linking of
Various Regions of the
Cortex
 Basal Nuclei
• Act by modifying ongoing
activity in motor pathways
• Primary functions
– Regulates muscle tone
throughout the body
– Selecting and maintaining
purposeful motor activity while
suppressing useless or
unwanted patterns of
movement
– Helping monitor and
coordinate slow, sustained
contractions, especially those
related to posture and support
– Controls large automatic
movement
 Basal Ganglia:

Collection of sub- cortical nuclei (which

are situated at the base of the forebrain
and top of the midbrain) in fore brain
Major parts are caudate nucleus,
putamen and globus pallidus
Function is control of movement
b. Diencephalon
Thalamus
•Final relay point for
ascending sensory
information
•Contains two lobes
connected with a
bridge of gray matter
(Massa intermedia)
•Several nuclei in
thalamus

http://www.driesen.com/diencephalon.htm
1. Lateral geniculate neuclei (visual
function)
2. Medial geniculate neuclei (auditory
function)
3. Ventro lateral nucleus (motor function)
Coordinates the activities of the cerebral
cortex and basal nuclei
Domain-specific information processing
 Hypothalamus
• Receives indirect sensory
inputs from all sensory
systems
• Sends neural outputs to
various motor control
nuclei
• Sends neural outputs to
sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous
systems
• Sends both neural and
hormonal outputs to
pituitary
 Control of endocrine system
• Anterior pituitary • Posterior pituitary
gland (body’s • Oxytocin (ejection
master gland) of milk and uterine
• Gonadotropin-
contraction at the
releasing hormone
(Gonadotropic time of child birth
hormone) important in • Vasopressin:
reproductive regulate urine
physiology and
output by the
behavior, release of
sex hormones kidney
 Hypothalamus
• Controls somatic motor activities at the subconscious
level
• Controls autonomic function
• Coordinates activities of the endocrine and nervous
systems
• Secretes hormones
• Produces emotions and behavioral drives
• Coordinates voluntary and autonomic functions
• Regulates body temperature
• Coordinates circadian cycles of activity
• 4Fs: feeding, fighting, fleeing, and reproductive behavior
2. Mid Brain
 a. Tectum
• Superior colliculi: part of visual system
• Inferior colliculi: part of auditory
system
• Appear like four bumps on the dorsal
surface of the brain
 b. Tegmentum
• Portion beneath the tectum
• Areas
Reticular formation: 90 nuclei, sleep and arousal,
attention, muscle tonus, movement and vital reflexes
(manage internal body organs e.g. heart beat, blood
pressure, swallowing, stomach activity
Periaqueductal gray matter: control sequence of
movements, fighting and mating behaviors
Red nucleus and substantia nigra: components of
motor system. Parkinson’s disease
3. Hindbrain
 Cerebellum
• Basic functions: coordination, balance, motor learning, etc.
• Vestibulocerebellum – balance and control of eye movement
• Spinocerebellum – enhances muscle tone and coordinates skilled
voluntary movement – important in synchronization and timing
– Receives input concerning desired action from motor cortex
– Receives feedback concerning actual action from proprioceptors, vestibular
apparatus, eyes
– Compares inputs and sends adjustments or corrective signals to motor tracts
• Cerebrocerebellum – planning and initiation of voluntary activity by
providing input to the cortical motor areas also involved in procedural
memories
 Brain Stem: Pons & Medulla
• An important link between spinal cord and higher brain levels, relays motor and
sensory impulses between other “higher” parts of the brain and spinal cord
• Midbrain – eye movement control
• Pons (sleep and arousal)
• Medulla (regulation of cardio-vescular system, respiration and skeletal muscle
tonus) (Detail of structures given in next slides)
Cranial Nerves

Table 9-1: The Cranial Nerves

 Pons
• Sensory and motor nuclei for four cranial nerves
• Nuclei that help control respiration
• Nuclei and tracts linking the cerebellum with the
brain stem, cerebrum and spinal cord
 Medulla oblongata
• Contains relay stations and reflex centers
– Cardiovascular and respiratory rhythmicity centers
• Cardiovascular center - regulates rate and force of heartbeat
and vasoconstriction/dilation
• Respiratory center - regulates basic breathing rhythm
• Reticular formation begins in the medulla oblongata and
extends into more superior portions of the brainstem
 Reticular Activating System
• Network in brain stem
• Arousal, sleep, pain, &
muscle tone
• Ascending fiber sends
signals upward
• Arouses and activates
cerebral cortex
• Controls overall degree
of cortical alertness or
level of consciousness:
– maximum alertness
– wakefulness
– sleep
– coma