Chapter 12

Screen – Film Image

Receptor Systems
X-ray film
Double emulsion radiographic film – used in a cassette
with intensifying screens and the most common film
screen image receptor used in radiography today.

Intensifying screens – absorb the transmitted x –rays

and produce light which exposes the film.
Cassette – is the rigid, light – tight container that
holds the screens and film in close contact.

Photostimulable phosphor imaging plate in a cassette

as used in computed radiography (CR) is the most
common digital image receptor.
Direct digital radiography (DR) –involves a flat panel
detector that contains an electronic array.
Charge – coupled devices (CCD) –less commonly used in radiographic
imaging also use an electronic process to convert light to a digital signal.
8 x 10 10 x 12 11 x 14
 14 x 14 14 x 17
Film construction
Duplitized emulsion – majority of screen – type film
Film base –thin layer of polyester (polyethylene
terephthalate) which transmits light and provides a
support for the layers.
Radiographic film layers
Glass plate – first material of film base during World War 1
Cellulose nitrate – substitute material for glass plate.
Cellulose triacetate – replaced cellulose nitrate in mid -1920s film with
safety base.
Polyester (polyethylene teraphthalate) – is more resistant to warping
from age and stronger than cellulose triacetate, permitting easier
transport through automatic processors.
Base of radiographic film maintains its size and shape during use and
processing.
- Uniform lucency and nearly transparent to light so no unwanted
pattern or shading is found on the image.
Dimensional stability – property of base
Blue dye added
⮚ to enhance contrast
⮚ to reduce glare
Substratum or subbing layer – thin, strong adhesive layer that
binds the base to emulsion.
- Plays a vital role in ensuring that these do not separate while
processing as the emulsion layers absorbs warm chemicals
and swells.
- This layer usually a mixture of the film base solvent and
gelatin.
Emulsion layer – heart of the film
- A suspension of light / radiation – sensitive silver halides
suspended within a gelatin binder.
Supercoat / anti – abrasive layer – it protects the sensitive
emulsion layer against mechanical damage that can arise from
handling and transport within manual and automatic film
loaders and processors.
Film Storage and Handling
Storage
• temperature no greater than 68 to 70 degrees
Fahrenheit
• Humidity from 40% to 60%
• Protected from the following to prevent increased
density and fog
⮚ radiation
⮚ Fumes
⮚ Outdating
⮚ Light
Boxes stored on end, never flat, storing the boxes flat causes
pressure mark artifacts ( areas of increased density caused by
excessive pressure applied to the film).
Handling
⮚ pressure marks
⮚ static
• caused by static electricity discharge on film
• build –up on loading tray
• Build –up on loading bench
• rapidly pulling film from cassette as rubs against intensifying
screens
• low humidity in film – handling area
Crinkle or half – moon marks
⮚ bending film over fingernail during handling
⮚ other rough handling
Different types of films
Non screen film –film for getting very fine detail, used
without cassette and requiring long exposure time.
Copy film / duplicating film – film with a special reversal
emulsion so that a contact print can be made with
white light.
Film badge – a radiographic film worn as a badge and
used for detection and approximate measurement of
radiographic exposure of personnel.
Dental film – non screen film used in dental
radiography.
Bite – wing film – an x –ray film with a protruding tab to
be held between the upper and lower teeth used for a
bite – wing radiograph of oral structures.
Spot film – a radiograph of a small anatomic area
obtained
• By rapid exposure during fluoroscopy to provide a
permanent record of a transiently observed
abnormality
• By limitation of radiation passing through the area to
improve definition and detail of the image produced.
Luminescence - is spontaneous emission of light by a substance
not resulting from heat; or "cold light".
Fluorescence - is the emission of light by a substance that has
absorbed light or other electromagnetic radiation.
Phosphorescence – the emission of light which continues on or is
delayed after the removal of the luminescent energy source is
removed.
Intensifying screen structures
Supercoat / protective layer – the layer of intensifying screen
closest to the x –ray film and 15 to 25 micrometer thick.
Phosphor layer (100 -200 micron) – the active layer of the
intensifying screen.
The purpose of phosphor is to convert the energy of the x –ray
beam into visible light.
Substratum layer (10 – 20 micron)
Reflective layer – to maximize the amount of light emitted by the
phosphor layer a bright white reflective layer is placed between
the base and the phosphor layer.
Absorptive layer – to minimize the halation effect hence
minimize unsharpness caused by halation.
- Controls the screens light output can be used to
match screens into a graduated series for specialist
applications such as multi – section tomography.
Base layer (200 – 400 micron) – acts as a support for
the other layers and common materials include card,
polyester and plastic.
3 principal elements of Rare earth phosphor
⮚ Gadolinium (Gd)
⮚ Yttrium (Y)
⮚ Lanthanum (La)
General Characteristics of Screen
Screen effects on image quality - are governed by
various factors, such as phosphor particle size,
suspension medium, layer thickness, phosphor /
suspension packing density and the presence / absence
of the reflective/ absorptive substratum.
Screen speed – is a separate measured quantity to film
speed or film screen combination speed.
Screen speed may be increased by the following
methods.
• Selection of an efficient phosphor / activator
combination
• Increasing phosphor particle size (up to point)
• Minimizing the binder volume
• Increasing the phosphor layer thickness
• employing a reflective layer
Intensification factor – ratio of exposure in mAs needed
to produce image without screens compared with
exposure in mAs needed to produce image with
screens.
IF =Exposure without screens
Exposure with screens

Relative speed numbers (RS) – allow exposure calculations and

modifications when the radiographer is moving from one film –
screen system to another eliminating guesswork.
100 speed is the base speed
Relative speed formula:
mAs 1/ mAs 2 = RS1 / RS2

Old mAs = New relative speed

New mAs Old relative speed

Image sharpness
Radiographic unsharpness is determined by the three
factors
⮚ movement unsharpness
⮚ Geometric unsharpness
⮚ film screen combination unsharpness including the
related film screen contact element
5 methods increase screen sharpness but must be
considered with the other influences
⮚ decreasing phosphor layer thickness
⮚ decreasing phosphor particle size
⮚ maximizing protective layer transparency
⮚ addition of absorptive dyes to the phosphor layer
⮚ omitting the reflective layer
Image contrast – is one of the principal influences on
image contrast the others include exposure kV and
generator waveform and film properties patient type.
Screen contrast is affected by
⮚ x –ray photon kV
⮚ phosphor type
⮚ speed difference between front and back screen
Quantum mottle – the light from individual phosphor
particles produces a spot of density on the film if the x
–ray exposure is small as when very fast screens are
used then this irregular spread of image points presents
as mottle.
Mounting – intensifying screens are in general mounted
in pairs into a cassette and normally there is no
distinction between front and back.
Care – screens are expensive objects and may cost
several hundred pounds for a pair to fit a 14 x 17
cassette.
Processing – the final stage in the production of
hardcopy x –ray image.
Development – the developing agent gives up electrons
to convert the silver halide grains to metallic silver.
Stopping the development – the stop bath simply stops
the development process by diluting and washing the
developer away with water.
Fixing – unexposed silver halide crystals are removed by
the fixing bath.
Washing – the film is washed with water to remove all the
processing chemicals.
Drying – the film is dried for viewing.
Development – is a chemical process that magnifies the invisible
latent image into visible halide image.
Developer( reducing agent) – the solution used
- Converts the exposed silver ion into black metallic silver by
reduction process (addition of electron).
Developer solution contains
⮚ solvent
⮚ Developing agent
⮚ activator
⮚ preservative
⮚ Restrainer
⮚ Hardener for automatic processing
Developing agent – supplies electrons for the process of
reduction.
Accelerator – provides an alkaline environment pH
ranges 9.8 – 11.4 to allow the developer to function
effectively.
Restrainer (anti – fogging) – usually benzotriazole acts
to aid the selectively of the developing agent helping to
prevent conversion of unexposed silver halides.
Potassium- an effective restrainer is produced as a by
product of the development process.
Water – used as a solvent as it is clean and free from
chemical deposits and is the medium in which the
other developer constituents are mixed.
Potassium sulphite – as a preservative act to reduce the rate
of aerial oxidation of the developing agent and to facilitate
the regeneration of phenidone by hydroquinone.
Bactericides and fungicides – act to restrain growth of
organisms within the solution.
Hardeners – reduce the chances of damage to the emulsion
layer during transportation or of the film becoming stuck in
the processor.
Factors influencing development rate
• pH of the solution
• solution temperature – developing agent is more active
at higher temperatures
• nature of the developing agent (controlled by the
manufacturer)
• development time
Fixation
Major functions of fixation
• continuing the process of film hardening
• terminating further development
• converting undeveloped silver halides into a soluble
silver complex
• making the image permanent
Constituents of fixer
Ammonium thiosulfate – fixing agent is rapid acting and
combines with underdeveloped silver halides to form a
soluble silver compound that then migrates through a
process of osmosis into the fixing solution.
Acetic acid – ensures development is terminated and
provides appropriate environment.
Aluminum salts –commonly used as hardeners to
reduce drying time and enhance the hardening effect.
Water – as solvent
Preservative (sulphurization) – reduces the rate at
which the fixing agent decomposes
Boric acid – used as an anti – sludging agent to reduce
the rate at which the aluminum salts may precipitate
out of solution.
Buffers – act to control the pH of the solution by
neutralizing the effects of the alkaline developer
solution that is carried over within the film emulsion.
Factors affecting fixation rate included
• presence of hardeners (slow process)
• High concentration of the silver complexes in solution in
pH (pH should be constant)
• Nature and concentration of fixing agent
Washing – stage designed to remove both residual fixer
chemicals and silver salts from the film emulsion.
Drying – (15% moisture) air used to evaporate excess
moisture from the film and air of low humidity (dry air)
accelerates the process, as do air circulation.
Manual processing begins with the darkroom.
Darkroom –should be located in a central location, adjacent
to the reading room and a reasonable distance from the
exposure area.
Film should be located in a light, tight compartment which is
most often a metal bin that is used to store and protect the film.
Objective of processing
⮚ to produce a radiograph adequate for viewing
⮚ to prepare the radiograph for archival storage
Automatic processor evaluation – is the essential piece of
equipment in every x-ray department.
Main contents of the processor
⮚ A series of processing tanks and a roller transport
mechanism
⮚ An electric motor to ensure that all racks are driven at a
constant speed
⮚ Plastic or stainless steel guide – plates assist movement
at top and bottom of tanks where film changes direction
⮚ Crossover assemblies located between adjacent
processing tanks, utilize “squeegee” rollers to remove
much surface liquid
⮚ Arrival of a film into entry roller system can activate a
number of processes, including replenishment of
processing fluids, activated by either a micro switch
situated above the higher entry roller or by an infra –
red detector
 Developer section
Temperature control – to maintain image quality
temperature must be maintained within 0.5 degree
Celsius.
Drainage system – emptying of the tank for routine
cleaning and maintenance
Replenishment system – pumps fresh developer
solution into the tank maintaining the activity and
quantity of developer within the tank
Recirculatory system – inlet and outlet pipes an electric
pump and possibly a filter to ensure agitation and
recirculation of the solution
Fixer section – contains drainage, recirculatory and
replenisher systems that are similar in function to those
within developer section
Wash section – remove both residual fixer complexes
and silver complexes, thus improving archival
permanence of the film.
2 types of wash section
⮚ spray rinse
⮚ Tank of running water with flow rate of 7 L min
Drying section – danger to film emulsion if the air used
for drying is too hot.
2 types of drying section
⮚ infrared drying – heat from electrically heated elements is radiated onto the
film and air blown from fan removes vapor
⮚ Hot air drying – filtered air is directed tubes onto the film from a series of
cylindrical tubes located between transport rollers
Transport system – comprises a series of rollers arranged in racks driven by an
electric motor at a constant speed
Distinct categories of rollers fit
⮚ Hard – made from PVC
⮚ Soft – made from neoprene type material
Squeegee rollers –play an important part in reducing carry – over rate of
chemicals.
Film feed system – system activates all the main processor functions and in
instances when manual loading of the processor occurs gives an audible signal
that is safe to feed another film into processor
Different systems are utilized to achieve
⮚ Entry roller detection – which occurs when a film activates a switch in the
entry roller
⮚ Infrared detectors – which are placed just inside the processor behind the
entry roller assembly
Replenishment system – may occur while each film is fed into
the processor when the micro switch is activated or is related to
the area of film processed as calculated by infrared detector.
Computed Radiography Image Receptor (cassette – based
system) – can be used in the same way as film – screen cassettes
in the bucky, on the tabletop or on mobile exams
Comparison of Conventional screen versus imaging Phosphor
plate
Direct digital radiography image receptor (cassetteless system)
(DR) –uses a flat panel direct capture detector array that absorbs
radiation and converts the energy into electrical signals.

Films latent image – is the result of deposits of silver ions at the

sensitivity specks in the emulsion.