Nigerian Oil and Gas Industry Mentoring Program

Seismic Data
Acquisition &
Interpretation
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February 2024
 Program Schedule

 Seismic Method

 Seismic Acquisition

 Seismic Processing

 Seismic Interpretation
 Program Schedule

 Seismic Method

 Seismic Acquisition

 Seismic Processing

 Seismic Interpretation
 Seismic Processing
Introduction

 Seismic data processing is the application of specific mathematical processes to raw seismic data in order to obtain an

interpretable seismic section.

 The primary aim of seismic processing is to obtain an accurate and interpretable image of the earths subsurface as

recorded during acquisition

 Seismic Processing
Objectives of Seismic Processing
Processed seismic stack section ready for interpretation

Raw Seismic shot gather (Not yet processed)

 Seismic data acquisition and seismic data processing work together to produce the best subsurface image.

 Raw seismic data is not interpretable because it has not been processed.

 Ideally, processed seismic data should represent the true earth response. In practice, the processed data will
only be an approximation.
 Seismic Processing
Elements of Good Processing

 Accurate Geometry

Reflection travel times free from distortion for true

trap definition

 Compact Wavelets Good Processing

Correct reflection amplitude and pulse shape for

reservoir lithology and fluid property prediction

 Reduced Noise

Good signal to noise ration for mapping reflections of

interest

Great Processing
 Seismic Processing
Processing Work Flow

Reformatting

LMO display of first break

Geometry Updating

Shots monitoring
Trace Editing

Shots and stack section monitoring

Static

Shots and stack section monitoring

Pre-stack denoise

Amplitude Compensation
Shots and stack section monitoring

Deconvolution Amplitude spectrum and stack section monitoring

Velocity Analysis Stack section monitoring

Multi-Iteration

Residual static(Land) or Section monitoring

Demultiple(Marine)

Processing Flow Section monitoring

CMP Gathers
for PSTM Stacking
Supervision
Stack section monitoring
PSTM
 Seismic Processing
Raw Seismic Data Formats

 Seismic data can be stored on disks, tapes or in cloud technology (new).

 In the field, acquired seismic data are mainly stored on tapes in SegD or SegY format.

 Before starting with any processing step, a copy of the field tapes is made. The original tapes are stored in

a safe place, while the copy-tapes are used in the processing. This is necessary procedure for safety

purposes.

Tape Cartridge External Hard Disk

 Seismic Processing
Pre-processing Steps
Geometry update
 Records of acquisition survey geometry and parameters are stored in Shell Processing Support (SPS) data format.

Receiver file:

 Receiver file contains the information about the geophones their type, position (Easting, Northing, Elevation) and
their ID.

Source file:

 Source file contains the information about the seismic source its position and their ID.

Cross reference file:

 Cross reference file (also known as relational file) or in short, X file, is basically a relational file relating the source
and the receiver when the shot occurred. It contains the details about the Shot ID, Source and receivers
associated with that particular shot ID.

Comment file:

 This file is an optional file. Any other information regarding the seismic acquisition can be provided in this file for
the processing center.
 Seismic Processing
Pre-processing Steps
Geometry update

LMO Method Mute Method

After the seismic data has been updated with its field geometry, the update is quality checked (QC)
 Seismic Processing
Pre-processing Steps
Statics Correction (Elevation)
 Elevation Statics Correction is applied to seismic data to compensate for the effects of variations in
topography.

 The objective is to determine the reflection arrival times which would have been observed if all
measurements had been made on a (usually) flat plane with no elevation differences.

Geophone
Weatherin
Low velo g layer,
city Laye
r (LVL)

Shot Point Geophone

Elevation Difference

Bed Rock
 Seismic Processing
Pre-processing Steps
Statics Correction (Refraction)
 Refraction Statics Correction is applied to seismic data to compensate for the effects of variations in
near-surface low-velocity-layer (weathering) thickness, weathering velocity,.

 The objective is to determine the reflection arrival times which would have been observed if all
measurements had been made on a (usually) flat plane with no weathering or low-velocity material
present.

Geophone
Weatherin
Low velo g layer,
city Laye
r (LVL)

Geophone
Elevation Difference

Shot Point es
av
a dW
He
Bed Rock
 Seismic Processing
Pre-processing Steps
Statics Correction

Shot Before Statics Correction Shot After Statics Correction

Seismic Processing
Pre-processing Steps
Statics Correction
 Seismic Processing
Pre-processing Steps
Noise and Signal Analysis

 A raw seismic data has both signals from subsurface

reflectors and noise recorded together.

 Two noise categories include

 Random Noise: include Environment and Instrument Noise.

 Coherent Noise: include linear noise (ground roll, guided

waves, etc.), reverberations and multiples.

 Noise Attenuation (Denoising) entails improving the signal-to-

noise ratio of raw seismic data by:

 Identification of noise types in the data

 Understand the noise characteristics

 Attenuating and/or suppressing the noise component of

the data.
 Seismic Processing
Pre-processing Steps
Why are signals hyperbolic in shape?

n 2 1 2 n
1

Hyperbolic shape of reflection is due to

the effect of Normal Move Out (NMO)
 Seismic Processing
Pre-processing Steps
Why are signals hyperbolic in shape?

R6 R5 R4 R3 R2 R1 RS R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6

Time 1.41 1.23 1.0 0.8 0.62 0.4 0.2 0.4 0.65 0.81 1.0 1.22 1.40
@A

Time 1.99 1.80 1.6 1.40 1.25 1.01 0.8 1.01 1.25 1.40 1.62 1.81 2.0
@B 3

Plot a graph of Distance (x- axis) against time (y-axis) using the given receiver
time values for each interface A & B
NOTE: Receivers are placed uniformly at 50m apart
 Seismic Processing
Pre-processing Steps
Ground Roll Noise Attenuation

 This is a type of coherent noise generated by a

surface wave, it typically obscures signal and

degrades overall data quality and are characterised

by;

 Low frequency

 Low velocity

 High amplitude

 Ground roll noise can be attenuated by;

 Careful selection of source and geophone arrays

 Applying band pass filter

 Careful selection of stacking parameters

 Seismic Processing
Pre-processing Steps
Ground Roll Noise Attenuation

Before
 Seismic Processing
Pre-processing Steps
Ground Roll Noise Attenuation

After
Seismic Processing
Pre-processing Steps
Ground Roll Noise
Attenuation

Difference
Seismic Processing
Pre-processing Steps
Swell Noise Attenuation
 Seismic Processing
Pre-processing Steps
Attenuation of Multiples
Water Bottom Multiple
Surface-related multiples have at least one
reflection at the surface

First-order Second-order First-order Second-order

Surface-related Surface-related

 Multiples are seismic energy that has been reflected more than
S R S R
Source-side
pegleg

Receiver-side
pegleg

once. Surface-related Inter-bed (internal)

 Multiple attenuation steps are often applied several times, Subsurface Multiple
Surface-related multiples have at least one
especially in areas with strong multiples. reflection at the surface

First-order Second-order First-order Second-order

 Multiple Removal Approach: S

Surface-related
R S R
Surface-related

Source-side
pegleg

 Marine Data: technique is determined by water depth Receiver-side

pegleg

Surface-related Inter-bed (internal)

 Deep water – velocity separation (Radon)

 Shallow Water - deconvolution Peg-leg Multiple
Surface-related multiples have at least one
reflection at the surface

 Land Data: uses velocity separation (Radon) First-order Second-order First-order Second-order
Surface-related Surface-related
and/or deconvolution S
Source-side
R S R

pegleg

Receiver-side
pegleg

Surface-related Inter-bed (internal)

 Seismic Processing
Pre-processing Steps
Attenuation of Multiples
Surface Related Multiples Elimination (SRME)

Before 3D SRME (Input Gather) Predicted Multiples After 3D SRME (Output

Gather)
 Seismic Processing
Pre-processing Steps
Attenuation of Multiples

Before Radon After Radon

Conflicting dip due to primaries and Multiples effectively removed with Radon
multiples
 Seismic Processing
Pre-processing Steps
Amplitude Compensation
 Seismic energy when generated, the wave will spread in all directions
 The seismic wave looses its energy (amplitude) with respect to distance/time from source due to the following factors

Source
 Seismic Processing
Pre-processing Steps
Amplitude Compensation
 Seismic energy when generated, the wave will spread in all directions
 The seismic wave looses its energy (amplitude) with respect to distance/time from source due to the following factors

1. Spherical Divergence

 Loss of energy through time/ depth/ distance traveled.

 Energy decays by the inverse square of the distance

traveled. Since we know how signal strength is
Energy
Energyvaries
variesas
as lost by geometric spreading from the
1/radius 2
or 1/time
1/radius2 or 1/time2
2
surface source location, we will be able
to apply a correction factor.
 Spherical divergence amplitude compensation
compensates for attenuation in the vertical direction.
 Seismic Processing
Pre-processing Steps
Amplitude Compensation
 Seismic energy when generated, the wave will spread in all directions
 The seismic wave looses its energy (amplitude) with respect to distance/time from source due to the following factors

2. Transmission Loss

Energy is partitioned at each acoustic interface.

• At a reflecting interface, normal incidence energy is converted into

N=1
two waves:

– Reflected P waves

– Transmitted P waves
N=2
• The incident energy at layer N has been reduced by all of the
overlying reflected energy.
N=3

N=4
 Seismic Processing
Pre-processing Steps
Amplitude Compensation
 Seismic energy when generated, the wave will spread in all directions
 The seismic wave looses its energy (amplitude) with respect to distance/time from source due to the following factors

3. Absorption Low Frequency

 Seismic energy is converted to heat.

Attenuation
 This is frequency dependent. Q = 50, F = 5 Hz

 The higher the frequency, the greater the loss of

signal.

 Absorption is referred to as Q.
High Frequency
 Q varies by rock type.

Amplitude
Amplitudevaries
variesas
as AAooee-
-

X/Q
X/Q Attenuation
Q = 50, F = 50 Hz
 Seismic Processing
Pre-processing Steps
Amplitude Compensation

Before Amplitude Compensation After Amplitude Compensation

Surface Consistent Amplitudes Compensation balances the seismic energy the vertical direction and cancels out the effect of energy loss with
time
 Seismic Processing
Pre-processing Steps
Amplitude Compensation

Stack section before Amplitude Compensation Stack section after Amplitude Compensation
 Seismic Processing
Pre-processing Steps
Deconvolution

 seismic trace is simply the convolution of the earth's reflectivity

R.C. Seismic with a seismic source function with the addition of a noise
Impedance Response
Trace
component.
Sandstone

 Convolution is a mathematical operation defining the change of

Carbonate
shape of a waveform resulting from its passage through a filter.

Shale
 A seismic pulse generated by an explosion is altered in shape by

filtering effects, both in the ground and in the recording system,

Sandstone
so that the seismogram (the filtered output) differs significantly

from the initial seismic pulse (the input).

 Seismic Processing
Pre-processing Steps
Deconvolution

 The process by which the altered waveforms are

restored is called deconvolution.

 The impulse response of the earth contains primary

Some Deconvolution Methods:

reflections (reflectivity series), multiples and noise.

 Surface Consistent

 It is the process designed to reverse the effects of the Deconvolution

passage of the input signal through the earth.  Predictive Deconvolution

 Effects of Deconvolution includes  Wavelet Deconvolution

 Compresses the basic wavelet and

 Spiking Deconvolution etc.
 Attenuates multiples and reverberations

 Increasing the temporal resolution of the seismic data.

 Seismic Processing
Pre-processing Steps
Surface Consistent Deconvolution

Before
Before After
After
 Seismic Processing
Pre-processing Steps
Surface Consistent Deconvolution

Before After
 Seismic Processing
Pre-processing Steps
Common Mid Point
Offset
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
S4 S3 S2 R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
S5 S1

0.2 X

0.4 X

X
0.6
A 0.8 X
X

1.0 X
X
1.2
X

1.4 X

B X

Time
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
Time@ A 0.2 0.39 0.66 0.78 1.05

Time @ B 0.81 1.03 1.23 1.45 1.67 A plot of offset against time in the CMP
domain will also give you a hyperbolic
shaped reflection/signal
 Seismic Processing
Pre-processing Steps
Normal Move Out (NMO) and Velocity Analysis

NMO means Normal Move Out

 A seismic processing step whereby reflection events are
flattened in a common midpoint gather in preparation for
stacking.

 As the shots roll along, there will be many source-receiver

pairs with the same CMP location.

 Our goal is to eventually process all these traces as a family

and add them together (CMP stack) to make one trace that
lives at this CMP location.

 NMO is aimed at removing the hyperbolic curvature in

reflection events i.e.removing the effect of offset.
 Seismic Processing
Pre-processing Steps
Normal Move Out (NMO) and Velocity Analysis
With correct velocity, Gather is flat
CMP Gather

Velocity
Curves
Too Slow Down

Velocity Flat
Correct

Velocity Curves
Up
Too Fast
Offset Distance
 Seismic Processing
Pre-processing Steps
Normal Move Out (NMO) and Velocity Analysis
CMP Gather Velocity Spectrum Stack
 Seismic Processing
Pre-processing Steps
Stacking

 Stacking is the process of summing all traces of a

seismic data.

 The summed Traces are gotten from different shot

records with a common reflection point, such as

common midpoint (CMP).

 After stacking, a single trace is formed with an improved

the signal-to-noise ratio and improved seismic data

quality.
 Seismic Processing
Pre-processing Steps
Migration

 Seismic migration is the process by which seismic events are

geometrically re-located in either space or time to the location Migrating the Stacked Image

Time
the event occurred in the subsurface rather than the location

that it was recorded at the surface, thereby creating a more

accurate image of the subsurface. Unmigrated

Image
In Red
 Importance of migration include
Reflection
 It moves dipping reflections to their true subsurface Surface

positions and Migrated

Image
 In Blue
collapses diffractions,

 increasing spatial resolution and

 Above all, yields a seismic image of the subsurface

 Seismic Processing
Pre-processing Steps
Migration
Before Migration

 Reflections are not properly located in the

subsurface

 It is difficult to interpret the structure

After Migration

 Reflections from dipping events are now properly located

 Reflections are more accurately located in the subsurface
 Seismic Processing
Pre-processing Steps
Types of Migration

When is Time Migration Preferred?

 Turn around time is critical.

 No velocity control is available (wells, VSPs or check shots)

When is Depth Migration Preferred?

 Positioning Accuracy is Paramount, e.g. in the Production stage

 Strong Lateral Velocity Changes, e.g. irregular salt bodies

 Severe Anisotropy (> 5%) – velocity varies by direction, e.g. fractured reservoirs
 Seismic Processing
Pre-processing Steps
Types of Migration
 There are many methods/algorithms for seismic migration.
 Migration type to use is based on velocity variability, geologic complexity, timing, budget, and business
need

Highly Variable
Post-Stack Time Migration
$$ Prestack Depth
 Multi-path
 Beam
Good to Poor Imaging  WEM
Prestack Depth  RTM
Kirchhoff

Velocity Variation
Pre-Stack Time Migration
$$$$ Prestack Time
Kirchhoff
Great to Fair Imaging

Pre-Stack Depth Migration Post-stack Time

$$$ $$$
Very smooth
Layer Highly
Excellent to Good Imaging cake Structural Variation Structured
 Seismic Processing
Pre-processing Steps
Migration and Business Phases

 Exploration – mostly uses time migration

 Discovery wells usually aim for the middle of the target

 “If it’s so small we can’t hit it with this data, it’s too small”

 Development – may be able to get by

 Depth migration is better

 One side-track will pay for a depth migration project

 Production – depth migration should be used in almost every case

Seismic Processing

Thank You