Operating Characteristics /

Engine Characteristics
 Operating Characteristics / Engine Characteristics

1. Engine Parameters
2. Work
3. Mean Effective Pressure
4. Torque and Power
5. Dynamometers
6. Air Fuel Ratio
7. Specific Fuel Consumption
8. Engine Efficiencies
9. Volumetric Efficiencies
 Operating Characteristics /Engine Characteristics

Engine Parameters

Consider an engine with bore B (see Fig. 2-1), crank offset a, stroke length S, turning at
an engine speed of N:

…………….(2.1)
Average piston speed is:

…………….(2.2)

N is generally given in RPM (revolutions per minute), Up in m/sec (ft./sec), and

B, a, and S in m or cm (ft. or in.).
Average piston speed for all engines will normally be in the range of 5 to 15/20 m/sec
(15 to 50 ft./sec), with large diesel engines on the low end and high-performance
automobile engines on the high end.

There are two reasons why engines operate in this range. First, this is about the safe
limit which can be tolerated by material strength of the engine components.
For each revolution of the engine, each piston is twice accelerated from stop to a
maximum speed and back to stop. At a typical engine speed of 3000 RPM, each
revolution lasts 0.02 sec (0.005 sec at 12,000 RPM).
If engines operated at higher speeds, there would be a danger of material failure
in the pistons and connecting rods as the piston is accelerated and decelerated during
each stroke. From Eq. (2-2) it can be seen that this range of acceptable piston speeds
places a range on acceptable engine speeds also, depending on engine size.

There is a strong inverse correlation b/w engine size and operating speed. Very
large engines with bore sizes on the order of 0.5 m (1.6 ft) typically operate in the
200- to 400 RPM range, while the very smallest engines (model airplane) with bores
on the order of 1 cm (0.4 in.) operate at speeds of 12,000 RPM and higher.
Table 2-1 gives representative values of engine speeds and other operating variables for
various-sized engines. Automobile engines usually operate in a speed range of 500
to 5000 RPM, with cruising at about 2000 RPM. Under certain conditions using
special materials and design, high-performance experimental engines have been
operated with average piston speeds up to 25 m/sec.

The second reason why maximum average piston speed is limited is because of the
gas flow into and out of the cylinders. Piston speed determines the instantaneous
flow rate of air-fuel into the cylinder during intake and exhaust flow out of the
cylinder during the exhaust stroke
 …………….(2.3)
where

…………….(2.4)

…………….(2.5)

where
 …………….(2.6)

R is the ratio of the connecting

rod length to crank offset and
usually has value of 3 to 4 for
all small engines, increasing to
5 to 10 for the largest engines
Figure shows the effect of R on
the piston speed.
Displacement Volume/ Swept Volume

…………….(2.7)

…………….(2.8)

…………….(2.9)
correction……….1.5 L to 2.5 L
If the stroke is shortened, the bore must be increased and the engine will be over
square.
This decreases friction losses but increases heat transfer losses.
Most modern automobile engines are near square, with some slightly over square
and some slightly under square.

This is dictated by design compromises and the technical philosophy of the manufacturer.
Very large engines have long strokes with stroke to-bore ratios as high as 4:1.
Clearance Volume (Vc)
Minimum cylinder volume occurs when the piston is at TDC and is called the clearance
volume Vc·
Compression Ratio (CR or rc)

Modern spark ignition (Sl) engines have compression ratios of 8 to 11,

while Compression Ignition (Cl) engines have compression ratios in the range
12 to 24.
Engines with superchargers or turbochargers usually have lower compression ratios
than naturally aspirated engines.
Because of limitations in engine materials, technology, and fuel quality, very early
engines had low compression ratios, on the order of 2 to 3. Figure 2-5 shows how
values of rc increased over time to the 8-11 range used on modern spark ignition
automobile engines.
 This limit of 8 to 11 is imposed mainly by gasoline fuel properties and force limitations
allowable in smaller high speed engines

Various attempts have been made to develop engines with a variable compression ratio.
One such system uses a split piston that expands due to changing hydraulic pressure
caused by engine speed and load.
Some two-stroke cycle engines have been built which have a sleeve-type valve that
changes the slot opening on the exhaust port. The position where the exhaust port is
fully closed can be adjusted by several degrees of engine rotation. This changes the
effective compression ratio of the engine.
The cylinder volume V at any crank angle is:

…………….(2.13)
 …………….(2.14)

…………….(2.15)

…………….(2.16)

…………….(2.17)
Work:

Work is the output of any heat engine, and in a reciprocating IC engine this work is
generated by the gases in the combustion chamber of the cylinder. Work is the result
of a force acting through a distance. That is force due to gas pressure on the moving
piston generates the work in an IC engine cycle.

…………….(2.20)

Where:
…………….(2.21)
 …………….(2.22)

If P represents the pressure inside the cylinder combustion chamber, then Eq. (2-
22) and the areas shown in Fig. 2-9 give the work inside the combustion chamber. This
is called indicated work. Work delivered by the crankshaft is less than indicated work
due to mechanical friction and parasitic loads of the engine. Parasitic loads include
the oil pump, supercharger, air conditioner compressor, alternator, etc. Actual
work available at the crankshaft is called brake work Wb' units of specific work will

be kJ/kg or BTU/lbm
 …………….(2.23)

The upper loop of the engine cycle in Fig. 2-9 consists of the compression and
power strokes where output work is generated and is called the gross indicated
work (areas A and C in Fig. 2-9)
The lower loop, which includes the intake and exhaust stroke, is called pump work
and absorbs word from the engine( area B and C). Net indicated work is:

Superchargers increase net indicated work but add to the friction work of the engine
since they are driven by crankshaft. The ratio of brake work at the crankshaft to
indicated work in the combustion chamber defines the mechanical efficiency of an
engine
…………….(2.27)
Mechanical efficiency will be on the order of 75% to 95% at high speed for modern
automobile engines operating at wide-open throttle. It then decreases with decreasing
engine speed to zero at idle conditions, when no work is taken off the crankshaft.
Care should be taken when using the terms "gross work" and "net work". In some
older literature and textbooks, net work (or net power) meant the output of an engine
with all components, while gross work (or gross power) meant the output of the engine
with fan and exhaust system removed.
Mean Effective Pressure:

From the figure shown above, it can be seen that pressure in the cylinder of an engine
is continuously changing during the cycle. An average or mean effective pressure
(mep), is defined by:

…………….(2.28)

…………….(2.29)

…………….(2.30)
 …………….(2.31)

Indicated work gives indicated mean effective pressure:

…………….(2.32)
The imep can further be divided into gross indicated mean effective pressure and net
indicated mean effective pressure:

Pump mean effective pressure (which can have negative values):

Friction mean effective pressure:

 The following equations relate some of the previous definitions:

Where:
Typical maximum values of bmep for naturally aspirated SI engines are in the range
of 850 to 1050 kpa (120 to 150 psi). For CI engines, typical maximum values are
700 to 900 kpa (100 to 130 psi) for naturally aspirated engines and 1000 to 1200 kpa
(145 to 175 psi) for turbocharged engines.

Torque and Power:

…………….(2.38)
Where:

For a two stroke cycle engine with one cycle for each revolution

Two stroke cycle:

…………….(2.40)
 For a four stroke cycle engine which takes two revolutions per cycle:

…………….(2.41)

In these equations, bmep and brake work Wb are used because torque is measured off
the output crankshaft.
Many modern automobile engines have maximum torque in the 200 to 300 N-m range
at engine speeds usually around 4000 to 6000 RPM. The point of maximum torque
is called maximum brake torque speed (MBT). A major goal in the design of a
modern automobile engine is to flatten the torque-versus-speed curve as shown in Fig.
2-11, and to have high torque at both high and low speed.
CI engines generally have greater torque than SI engines. Large engines often
have very high torque values with MBT at relatively low speed.
Power is defined as the rate of work of the engine. If n = number of revolutions per
cycle, and N = engine speed, then:
…………….(2.42)
 Where:

Depending upon which definition of work or mep is used in equation. Power can be
defined as brake power, net indicated power, gross indicated power, pumping power,
and even friction power. Also,
…………….(2.47)
 Power is normally measured in kW, but horsepower (hp) is still common.
1 hp = 0.7457 kW = 2545 BTU/hr. = 550 ft.-Ibf/sec
1 kW = 1.341 hp

Engine power can range from a few watts in small model airplane engines to thousands
of kW per cylinder in large multiple-cylinder stationary and ship engines.
Modern automobile engines range mostly from 40 to 220 kW (50-300 hp).

Both torque and power are functions of engine speed. At low speed, torque
increases as engine speed increases.
Friction losses increase with speed and become the dominant factor at very high
speeds. For many automobile engines, maximum brake power occurs at about 6000 to
7000 RPM, about one and a half times the speed of maximum torque.

Greater power can be generated by increasing displacement, mep, and/or speed.

Increased displacement increases engine mass and takes up space, both of which are
contrary to automobile design trends. For this reason, most modern engines are
smaller but run at higher speeds, and are often turbocharged or supercharged to
increase mep.
These parameters are important for engines used in transportation vehicles such as boats,
automobiles, and especially airplanes, where keeping weight to a minimum is necessary.
For large stationary engines, weight is not as important.

Modern automobile engines usually have brake power output per displacement in the
range of 40 to 80 kW/L.
The Honda eight-valve-per-cylinder V4 motorcycle engine generates about 130
kW/L, an extreme example of a high-performance racing engine [22]. One main
reason for continued development to return to two-stroke cycle automobile engines
is that they have up to 40% greater power output per unit weight.

Dynamometers:

Dynamometers are used to measure torque and power over the engine
operating ranges of speed and load. They do this by using various methods to
absorb the energy output of the engine, all of which eventually ends up as heat.
Some dynamometers absorb energy in a mechanical friction brake (prony brake).
These are the simplest dynamometers but are not as flexible and accurate as others at
higher energy levels.

Fluid or hydraulic dynamometers absorb engine energy in water or oil pumped

through orifices or dissipated with viscous losses in a rotor-stator combination.
Large amounts of energy can be absorbed in this manner, making this an attractive
type of dynamometer for the largest of engines.

Eddy current dynamometers use a disk, driven by the engine being tested, rotating in
a magnetic field of controlled strength. The rotating disk acts as an electrical conductor
cutting the lines of magnetic flux and producing eddy currents in the disk. With no
external circuit, the energy from the induced currents is absorbed in the disk.
One of the best types of dynamometers is the electric dynamometer, which absorbs
energy with electrical output from a connected generator. In addition to having an
accurate way of measuring the energy absorbed, the load is easily varied by changing
the amount of resistance in the circuit connected to the generator output. Many
electric dynamometers can also be operated in reverse, with the generator used as a
motor to drive (or motor) an unfired engine. This allows the engine to be tested for
mechanical friction losses and air pumping losses, quantities that are hard to measure
on a running fired engine.
Air-fuel Ratio And Fuel-Air Ratio:

…………….(2.55)
Where:

The ideal or stoichiometric AF for many gasoline-type hydrocarbon fuels is

very close to 15:1, with combustion possible for values in the range 6 to 25. AF
less than 6 is too rich to sustain combustion and AF greater than 25 is too lean.
The fuel input system of an engine, fuel injectors or carburetor, must be able to
regulate the proper amount of fuel for any given air flow. Gasoline-fueled
engines usually have AF input in the range of 12 to 18 depending on the
operating conditions at the time.
Specific Fuel Consumption:

…………….(2.58)
Brake Specific Fuel Consumption is

…………….(2.59)

Indicated Specific Fuel Consumption is

…………….(2.60)
Where:
Engine Efficiencies:

The time available for the combustion process of an engine cycle is very brief, and
not all fuel molecules may find an oxygen molecule with which to combine, or the
local temperature may not favor a reaction. Consequently, a small fraction of fuel
does not react and exits with the exhaust flow.
A combustion efficiency ….is defined
to account for the fraction of fuel which burns. …..typically has values in the range
0.95 to 0.98 when an engine is operating properly. For one engine cycle in one cylinder,
the heat added is:
For steady state:

And thermal efficiency :

And mechanical efficiency :

And fuel conversion efficiency :

Volumetric Efficiency:

One of the most important processes that governs how much power and performance
can be obtained from an engine is getting the maximum amount of air into
the cylinder during each cycle. More air means more fuel can be burned and more
energy can be converted to output power. Getting the relatively small volume of
liquid fuel into the cylinder is much easier than getting the large volume of gaseous
air needed to react with the fuel.
Ideally, a mass of air equal to the density of atmospheric air times the displacement
volume of the cylinder should be ingested for each cycle. However, because of the
short cycle time available and the flow restrictions presented by the air cleaner,
carburetor (if any), intake manifold, and intake valve(s), less than this ideal amount
of air enters the cylinder.
Volumetric efficiency is defined as:

…………….(2.69)