Chapter 3

Small Signal Amplifiers

 Introduction
The term amplifier means a circuit (or stage) using a single
active device rather than a complete system such as an
integrated circuit operational amplifier.
An amplifier is a device for increasing the power of a
signal. This is accomplished by taking energy from a power
supply and controlling the output to duplicate the shape of
the input signal but with a larger (voltage or current)
amplitude. In this sense, an amplifier may be thought of as
modulating the voltage or current of the power supply to
produce its output.
 Contd..
•In mathematical terms, if the input signal is
denoted as S, the output of a perfect amplifier is
X*S, where X is a constant (a fixed number). The
"*" symbol means
”multiplied by".

•No amplifier does exactly the ideal .

 Contd..
• But many do a very good job if they are operated
within their advertised power ratings .

• Output signal of all amplifiers contain additional

(unwanted) components that are not present in the
input signal; these additional characteristics may be
lumped together and are generally known as
distortion.
 Contd….
• Power amplifiers get the necessary energy for
amplification of input signals from the AC wall
outlet to which they are plugged into.

• If you had a perfect amplifier, all of the energy

the amplifier took from the AC outlet would be
converted to useful output (to the speakers)
 Contd ….
• Power is not really something that can be “amplified”.
Voltage and current can be amplified.
• The term “power amplifier” although technically incorrect
has become understood to mean an amplifier that is
intended to drive a load (such as a speaker, a motor, etc).

Features of amplifier:
High gain
Two input terminals
High input impedance
Low output impedance
 Functional blocks of an amplifier
• All power amplifiers have:

1. A Power supply

2. An input stage

3. An output stage
 1. Power Supply
• The primary purpose of a power supply in a power
amplifier is to take the AC power from the outlet
and convert it to a DC voltage.

• The very best of amplifiers have two totally

independent power supplies, one for each channel
(they do share a common AC power cord though).
 2. Input Stage
• The general purpose of the input stage of a power
amplifier (sometimes called the "front end") is to
receive and prepare the input signals for
"amplification" by the output stage.
• Two types:
1. Balanced Input
2. Single Ended Input
1. Balanced Input (double ended)

2. Single Ended Input

• Single-ended input operation results when the input
signal is connected to one input with the other input
connected to ground.
• In addition to using only one input, it is possible to apply
signals at each input—this being a double-ended
operation.
• Balanced inputs are much preferred over single ended
inputs when interconnection cables are long and/or
subject to noisy electrical environments because they
provide very good noise rejection.
• The input stage also contains things like input level
controls.
 3. Output Stage
• The portion which actually converts the weak input
signal into a much more powerful "replica" which is
capable of driving high power to a speaker.
• This portion of the amplifier typically uses a number
of "power transistors" (or MOSFETs) and is also
responsible for generating the most heat in the unit.
• The output stage of an amplifier interfaces to the
speakers.
 Amplifier Classes
• The Class of an amplifier refers to the design of the
circuitry within the amplifier.

• For audio amplifiers, the Class of amplifier refers

to the output stage of the amplifier.
 Classes

a b c

Collector current waveforms for transistors

operating in (a) class A, (b) class B, (c)
class AB, and (d) class C amplifier stages.

d
 Figure 1 - The Sine wave Cycle

• Class-A: Output device(s) conduct through 360 degrees of input cycle (never switch
off) - A single output device is possible. The device conducts for the entire waveform
in Figure 1

• Class-B: Output devices conduct for 180 degrees (1/2 of input cycle) - for audio,
two output devices in "push-pull" must be used (see Class-AB)

• Class-AB: Halfway (or partway) between the above two examples (181 to
200 degrees typical) - also requires push-pull operation for audio. The conduction
for each output device is shown in Figure 1.
 Figure 1 - The Sine wave Cycle

•Class-C: Output device(s) conduct for less than 180

degrees (100 to 150 degrees typical) - Radio
Frequencies only - cannot be used for audio! This is
the sound heard when one of the output devices goes
open circuit in an audio amplifier! See Figure 1,
showing the time the output device conducts
 Class A Output Stage
• Class A output stage is a simple linear current
amplifier.
• It is also very inefficient, typical maximum
efficiency between 10 and 20 %.
• Only suitable for low power applications.
• High power requires much better efficiency.
Basic class A amplifier operation. Output is shown
180 degree out of phase with the input (inverted).
Maximum class A output occurs when the Q-point is centered on the ac load line.
Q-point closer to cutoff.
Q-point closer to saturation.
FIGURE Class A power amplifier with correct output voltage swing.
 Why is class A so inefficient ?
• Single transistor can only conduct in one
direction.
• D.C. bias current is needed to cope with
negative going signals.
• 75 % (or more) of the supplied power is
dissipated by d.c.
• Solution : eliminate the bias current.
 Class A
• Class A amplifiers have very low distortion (lowest
distortion occurs when the volume is low)
• They are very inefficient and are rarely used for
high power designs.
• The distortion is low because the transistors in the
amplifier are biased such that they are half "on"
when the amplifier is idling
• As a result of being half on at idle, a lot of power is
dissipated in the devices even when the amplifier
has no music playing!
• Class A amplifiers are often used for "signal" level
circuits (where power requirements are small)
because they maintain low distortion.
 Class-A Benefits
• The first is circuit simplicity.
• The signal is subjected to comparatively little
amplification, resulting in an open loop gain which
is generally fairly low.
• This means that very little overall feedback is used,
so stability and phase should be excellent over the
audio frequencies.
• Do not require any frequency compensation.
 Class-A Benefits
• No cross over distortion
• No switching distortion
• Lower harmonic distortion in the voltage amplifier
• Lower harmonic distortion in the current amplifier
• No signal dependent distortion from the power supply
• Constant and low output impedance
• Simpler design
Circuit Operation
Basic class B amplifier operation (non-inverting).
Common-collector class B amplifier.
Class B push-pull ac operation.
Class B Current Waveforms

Iout

time

IC1

time

IC2

time
 Class B
• A class B output stage can be far more
efficient than a class A stage (78.5 %
maximum efficiency compared with 25 %).
• It also requires twice as many output
transistors…
• …and it isn’t very linear; cross-over
distortion can be significant.
 Class B
• Class B amplifiers are used in low cost designs or
designs where sound quality is not that important.
• Class B amplifiers are significantly more efficient than
class A amplifiers.
• They suffer from bad distortion when the signal level is
low (the distortion in this region of operation is called
"crossover distortion").
• Class B is used most often where economy of design is
needed.
• Before the introduction of integrated circuit (IC)
amplifiers, class B amplifiers were common in clock
radio circuits, pocket transistor radios, or other
applications where quality of sound is not that critical.
 Class AB
• Class AB is probably the most common amplifier
class currently used in home stereo and similar
amplifiers.

• Class AB amps combine the good points of class A

and B amps.

• They have the improved efficiency of class B amps

and distortion performance that is a lot closer to
that of a class A amp.
Load lines for a complementary symmetry push-pull amplifier. Only the load lines for the npn transistor are shown.
 Class AB
• With such amplifiers, distortion is worst when the
signal is low, and generally lowest when the signal
is just reaching the point of clipping.

• Class AB amps use pairs of transistors, both of them

being biased slightly ON so that the crossover
distortion (associated with Class B amps) is largely
eliminated.
 Class C
• Class C amps are never used for audio circuits.
• They are commonly used in Radio Frequency circuits.
• Class C amplifiers operate the output transistor in a
state that results in tremendous distortion (it would be
totally unsuitable for audio reproduction).

Basic class C amplifier operation (non inverting).

 Class C

• However, the RF circuits where Class C amps

are used, employ filtering so that the final
signal is completely acceptable.

• Class C amps are quite efficient.

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