UNIT TWO

PEOPLES AND CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA AND THE

HORN
 The Horn of Africa is referred to as the
cradle of humankind.
 It is also a region where early civilizations

including food production, making tools and

religion took place.
 2.1. Human Evolution

 Human evolution accounts only a fraction

of history of the globe that had been

formed through gradual natural process
since about (circa/c.) 4. 5 billion years 1

before present (B. P.).

 The earliest life came into being between 3 and 1
billion years B. P.
 Blue green algae, small plants, fishes, birds and

other small beings emerged at c. 800 million years

B. P.
 Primates branched of placental mammal stream as

of 200-170 million years B. P. and then some

primates developed into Pongidae (such as gorilla,
chimpanzee, orangutan, gibbon etc) while others
evolved into Hominidae (human ancestors).
 Archeological evidences suggest that East African

Rift Valley is a cradle of humanity.

 Evidences related to both biological and cultural

evolution have been discovered in the Lower Omo

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and Middle Awash River valleys both by Ethiopian
and foreign scholars.
 Many fossil records have discovered in
Ethiopia:
 Ardipithicus ramidus kadabba (dated 5.8-5.2

million years BP)-Middle Awash.

 Ardipithicus ramidus (dated 4. 2 million B.P.)-

Middle Awash.
 A three years old child’s fossil termed as

Australopithecus afarensis, Selam, dated to

3.3 million years B.P was also discovered at
Dikika, Mille, Afar in 2000.
 Another Australopithecus afarnesis

(Lucy/Dinkinesh, dated c. 3.18 million years3

B. P.)
 Later the genus homo have been recovered
in different parts of Ethiopia and the Horn
around 2-2.5 million years:
 Homo habilis,(skillful use of hands), dated

1.9 million years B. P.

 A fossil named Homo erectus (walking

upright, dated 1. 6 million years B. P.).

 Homo sapiens (knowledgeable human
being, dated 400, 000 years B.P.).

4
 Cultural evolution is related to technological
changes that brought socio-economic
transformation on human life.
 It can be conventionally grouped in to:
Stone Age,

Bronze Age, and

 Iron Age.

 Stone tools had been the first technologies

to be developed by human beings.

 By taking their features, ways and period of

production, stone tools can be grouped in to

Mode I(Olduwan, named based on the first 5

report made at Olduvai Gorge,Tanzania).

 Mode II (Acheulean, named after the first
report at St. Acheul, on the Somme River in
France ).
 Acheulean stone tools are the products of

Homo erectus, a closer ancestor to modern

humans.
 Mode III (Sangoon).

 The Mode I stone tools are mainly

characterized by crude and mono-facial
styles.
 Mode II stone tools were produced by

indirect percussion, by using hand-ax or 6

hammer, and mainly characterized by
bifacial, pointed and convex features.
 The period of usage of stone tools is divided
into sub-periods.
 The Paleolithic (Old Stone Age, from 3.4

million to 11, 000 years B. P.)

 Human being developed language with
shelter in cave using stone, bone,
wood, furs, and skin materials to
prepare food and clothing.
 There was sex-age labor division with

able-bodied males as hunters of fauna,

and children and females as gatherers
7
of flora.
II.Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age /11, 000-10,000 B. P.)
was transition between Paleolithic and Neolithic
(New Stone Age /10, 000-6, 000 B.P).
II. Neolithic Revolution
 Human beings transformed from mobile to
sedentary way of life.
 The domestication of plants and animals.
 Climatic change and increased hunter-gatherers’
population resulted in the declining number of
animals and availability of plants.
 People cultivated plants including Teff (Eragrotis
teff), dagussa (Eleusine coracana), nug (Guzotia
abyssinica), enset (Ensete ventricosum) etc.
 The domestication of enset plant reduced shifting
cultivation (continuous clearing of new plots), 8
slowing down soil exhaustion.
 The Gobodara rock shelter near Aksum has
provided us agricultural stone tools.
 Remains associated with domesticated
cattle, chickpeas and vegetables have
been excavated from Lalibela Cave on the
southeastern shore of Lake Tana.
 Stone tools used for cutting grass and

grass like plants as well as rock paintings

of domesticated animals have been found
at Laga Oda rock shelter near Charchar.
 Evidence for domesticated cattle also
comes from around Lake Basaqa near 9

Matahara.
 2.3. THE PEOPLE OF THE REGION
 The Horn is marked by ethnic and linguistic
diversity. There are about 90 languages with 200
dialects in Ethiopia and the Horn.
 Linguists classify languages super families of

Ethiopia and the Horn into two:

 Afro-Asiatic and

 Nilo-Saharan

 I. Afro-Asiatic: this super family is sub-divided

into the following families:

A. Cushitic: linguists divided this language family
into four branches:
 Northern: is represented by Beja, spoken in

northwestern Eritrea bordering the Sudan.

 Central: Agaw includes Awign, Kunfel, Qimant;
10
Hamtanga and Bilen.
  Eastern: this includes diversified linguistic groups like
Afar, Ale, Arbore, Baiso, Burji, Darashe, Dasanech,
Gedeo, Hadiya, Halaba, Kambata, Konso, Libido,Mosiye,
Oromo, Saho, Sidama, Somali, Tambaro, Tsemai, etc.
 Southern: represented by Dhalo in Kenya and Nbugua
in Tanzania.
B. Semitic: is divided into two:
 North: Ge'ez, Rashaida (spoken around Eritrea-

Sudanese border); Tigre (spoken in Eritrean

Lowland); Tigrigna (spoken in highland Eritrea and
Tigray).
 South: is further divided into two
 Transverse: Amharic, Argoba, Harari, Silte, Wolane and
Zay.
 Outer: Gafat (extinct), Gurage and Mesmes
(endangered). 11
 C. Omotic: distributed around the Omo
River Valley.
 Eg. Gamo , Gofa, Walayta, kafficho, Hamer,
Yem, Dorze, etc.
II. Nilo-Saharan:
Eg. Berta, Gumuz, Komo, Kunama,
Kwama, Kwegu, Majang, Mi'en, Murle,
Mursi, Nara, Nu’er,, Opo, Shabo, Suri and
Uduk.
 Language classification did not remain

static.
 Factors like population movements,
warfare, trade, religious and territorial
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expansion, urbanization.
 2.3.2. SETTLEMENT PATTERNS
A settlement pattern is the results of long
historical processes in northeast Africa.
 In some areas, settlement was dense and in

other areas sparse.

 Some people inhabited extensive highlands

and others the lowlands.

 Studies indicate that environmental, socio-

economic, and political processes

significantly shaped and reshaped the
spatial distribution of peoples in the Horn.
13
 Since early times, the Cushitic and Semitic
peoples had inhabited the area between
the Red Sea in the east and Blue Nile
 The Cushites have evolved to be the

largest linguistic group in Ethiopia and the

Horn.
 Semites are the second majority people

next to the Cushites.

 Except the Shinasha, who live in
Benishangul-Gumuz and the South Mao in
Wallagga, the majority of Omotic peoples
have inhabited southwestern Ethiopia along14
the Omo River basin.
 The Nilotes are largely settled along the
Ethiopia-Sudanese border although some
of the Chari-Nile family inhabited as far as
southern Omo.
 2.3.3. Economic Formations

 The domestication of plants and animals

gave humanity two interdependent modes

of life: agriculture and pastoralism.
 In the Horn, agriculture and pastoralism

form the livelihood.

 Yet, topographic features and climatic

conditions largely influenced economic

15
activities in the Region
A predominantly pastoral economy has
characterized the eastern lowland region
since early periods.
 Pastoral economy namely the production of

camel, goat, and cattle has been the

dominant form of activities in the lowland
regions of the Horn
 The plateaus have sustained plough
agriculture for thousands of years
supporting sizable populations.
 Majority of the populations were engaged in

mixed farming.
16
 The major economic activity of the Omotic
has been mixed farming and trade in
northern Omo while southern Omo have
predominantly practiced pastoralism and
fishing.
 They also practice metallurgy, weaving

and other crafts.

 The Nilotes along the Blue Nile and Baro-

Akobo Rivers have been shifting cultivators

where sorghum has been a staple food.
 Among majority Nilotic communities, cattle

have high economic and social values

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2.4. RELIGION AND RELIGIOUS PROCESSES
 2.4.1. Indigenous Religion
 This includes a variety of religious beliefs

and practices, which are native to the

region and have been followed by the local
people since ancient times.
 Waqeffanna of the Oromo is based on the

existence of one Supreme Being called

Waqa.
 Waqa's power is manifested through the

spirits called Ayyana.

 There are several major spirits based on 18

Waqeffanna. Exa.,
 Abdar/Dache (soil fertility spirit)
Atete (fertility spirit)
Balas (victory spirit)
Chato/Dora (wild animals defender).
 In the autumn and spring seasons
every year at the edge of ever-flowing
river and top of mountain respectively.
 There is thanks giving festival called

Irrecha besides New Year.

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 Among the Hadiya the Supreme Being is
known as Waa, who is believed to exist
before everything (hundam issancho) or
create world (qoccancho) and whose eyes
are represented by elincho (sun) and
agana (moon).
 The Kambata have Negitaor Aricho
Magano/Sky God and religious officials
known as Magnancho.
 The Gedeo called the Supreme Being,

Magenoand had thanks giving ceremony

called Deraro.
 The Konso religion centered on worship of
20

Waaq/Wakh.
 The Wolayta called God Tosa and spirit
Ayyana including Tawa-Awa /Moytiliya
(father’s spirit).
 The Keficho called Supreme Being as Yero;

spirit as Eqo and a person who hosts Eqo is

known as Alamo or eke-nayo.
 The Boro-Shinasha people believe in super

natural power called Iqa, which created

everything and presides over the universe.
 The indigenous religion elements prescribe

praying for the prevention of drought,

flooding, erosion, disease and starvation21
within the community and their
surrounding environment.
 An interesting feature of indigenous religion is the
way its practices and beliefs are fused with
Christianity and Islam.
 This phenomenon of mixing of religions is known as

syncretism.
 2.4.2. Judaism

 Judaism is considered as the expression of the

covenant that Yahweh/Jehovah (God) established

with the ancient Jewish (Hebrew).
 Sources indicate that Judaism has been followed in

Ethiopia and the Horn by peoples since early times.

 It began to be clearly noticed in the 4th century AD,

when the Bete-Israel one of the ancient peoples in

the region, refused to be converted to Christianity.
22
 2.4.3. Christianity
 Christianity became state religion in 334 A.D.

during the reign of King Ezana (r. 320-360), who

dropped pre-Christian gods like
 Ares (Hariman/Maharram/war god),

 Arwe (serpentpython god), Bahir (sea god)

 and Midir (earth god), and embraced

Christianity.
 Syrian brothers, Aedesius and Frementius
(Fremnatos) were reponsible for his conversion to
Christianity.
 When Fremnatos (Kasate Birhane or Abba Salama)

visited Alexandria, Patriarch Atnatewos (328-373)

appointed him as the first Bishop of Ethiopian
Orthodox Church (EOC). 23

 Consecration of bishops from Coptic Church in

  Christianity was further expanded to the mass of the society
in later part of fifth century, during the reign of Ella Amida II
(478-86) by the Nine Saints.

Name Origion Monastry/ Location

Church
1 Abuna Aregawwi Rome Debre Damo Eastern Tigray
(Abba Za Mika’el)
2 Abuna Isaq (Abba Rome Debre Medera (East of
Gerima) Gerima Adwa )
3 Abba Pentelwon Rome Debre Asbo (North East of
Pentelwon Aksum)
4 Abba Afse Ladocia Debre Afse Yeha (Northeast of
Aksum)
5 Abba Alef Qa’esare’a Debre Biheza (Northeast
Haleluya of Aksum)
6 Abba Gubba Cilicia Debre Gubba West of Medera
7 Abba Liqanos Constantinopl Debre North of Aksum
e Qonasel
24
8 Abba Sehama Antioch Tsedania Southeast of Adwa

9 Abba Yima’ata Qosa’iti Debre Ger’alta

 The saints also translated Bible and other
religious books into Geez.
 They were responsible for the expansion of

Orthodox Christianity into different parts of

the country.
 From mid-sixteenth to the early seventeenth

centuries, Jesuits tried to convert Orthodox

Christians to Catholicism.
 This led to bloody conflicts that in turn led to

expulsion of the Jesuits.

 As of 1804, missionaries’ religious expansion

was one of the dominant themes of treaties

concluded between European diplomats and 25

Ethiopian authorities.
2.4.4. ISLAM
 Prophet Mohammed started the teaching of Islam
in Mecca in 610 AD
 He faced opposition from the Quraysh Arabs.

 Because of this opposition , prophet Mohammed

sent his daughter Rukiya and her husband Uthman

as well as the Prophet's future wives Umm Habiba
and Umm Salma to Aksum.
 The first group of refuges was led by Jafar Abu

Talib.
 The then Aksumite king, Armah Ella Seham (Abjar

or Ahmed al-Nejash in Arabic sources), gave them

asylum from 615-28.
 Islam spread to the Horn of Africa not through 26
Jihad, but through peaceful ways including trade.
 Islam was well established in Dahlak
 The port of Zeila on western coast of Gulf of Aden
served as an important gateway for the
introduction of Islam mainly intothe present day
Shewa, Wollo and Hararghe.
 From the coasts of the Red Sea and the Gulf of

den, Islam radiated to central, southern, and

eastern Ethiopia.
 A Muslim saint Sheikh Hussein of Bale spread

Islam into Bale, Arsi and other southeastern parts

of Ethiopia and the Horn.
 Islam was introduced into Somali territories in the

8th c AD. through Benadir coasts of Moqadishu,

Brava and Merca.
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