History of Ethiopia and the Horn (Hist.

1102)

Unit Seven
INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AND
EXTERNAL RELATIONS, 1941–1995
 Post-1941 Imperial Period
1. Restoration and Consolidation of Imperial Power and
External Relations
A. Ethiopia and the British
– Britain continued to exercise the upper hand because of
the role it played in the liberation of Ethiopia from Fas-
cist rule.
– The British considered Ethiopia as OETA.
– The 1942 and 1944 agreements that Emperor Haile-Se-
lassie I was forced to sign with the British show the as-
cendancy of the latter.
 Cont…
• The 1942 agreement gave Britain a final authority
over Ethiopia’s foreign affairs, territorial integrity,
administration, finances, the military, and the police.
• The Emperor resented such restrictions to his pow-
ers and made some diplomatic engagements.
• The territorial issues were resolved only after a
decade.
 Cont…
B. Ethiopia and the USA
oThe first official contacts between Ethiopia and
the United States of America traced back to 1903
oBritish pre-dominance in 1940s was replaced by
the dominance of the United States in the 1950s
oHaile-Selassie I turned towards the United States
as a powerful ally than Britain.
oIn 1943, the Ethiopian vice Finance Minister, Yilma
Deressa, visited the US to request…
 Cont…
• Following the 1953 treaty, the US launched a military aid
program named the American Military Assistance Advisory
Group (MAAG) to equip Ethiopia’s armed forces.
– Ethiopians received various forms of military train-
ing in the US.
– By 1970, sixty percent of US military aid to Africa
went to Ethiopia.
– Civil aviation, road transport, and education were
other spheres that the Americans took active part.
 2. Socio-Economic Developments
• agriculture remained the leading economic sector
• There was disparity of landownership between north
and south Ethiopia.
• In addition to formal tributes, there were sundry
payments that smallholder and landless farmers had
to make
• In the 1960s and 1970s, commercial agriculture was
expanding.
• the government attempted to enhance the productiv-
ity of small farmers through launching comprehen-
sive agricultural package programs.
 Cont…
• Since the 1950s, the government formulated
strategic plans for economic development and
this came in a series of five-year plans.
• The First Five Year Plan (1957-1961) targeted the de-
velopment of infrastructure.
• The Second (1962-1967) turned towards mining,
manufacturing and electricity.
• The Third (1968-1972) gave priority to large-scale
agricultural development and ‘bringing higher living
standard’. The package projects CADU, WADU and-
SIDA were part of the third plan.
 Cont…
• Yet, much of Ethiopia remained traditional with a
low living standard and Ethiopia was one of the
least developed country in global terms.
• The manufacturing sector contributed less than five
percent of the national income.
• The manufacturing sector only produced light con-
sumer goods.
 Consolidation of Autocracy
• The post-liberation period witnessed the cli-
max of the emperor’s power.
• This was made possible through:
• the bureaucratization of government,
• the building of a national army and
• a centralized fiscal system.
 3. Oppositions and the Downfall of
the Monarchical Regime
Before the 1960s, opposition to the regime took in the
form of plots and conspiracies. After the 1960 Coup
d’état, however, oppositions gained wider mass sup-
port and came out more openly.
A.Plots and Conspiracies
– Some leaders of the resistance movement against Fas-
cist rule were opposed to the restoration of the emperor
– Dejazmach Belay Zeleke, Bitweded Negash Bezabih and Blatta
Takele Wolde-Hawaryat were well known in this category
 B. Peasant Rebellions
The Woyane Rebellion
The first peasant resistance against imperial rule took place
in Tigray. The term Woyane means 'revolt' in Tigrigna lan-
guage.
What is the cause?
the major confrontation took place on January 11, 1942.
small towns Qwiha, Enda-Iyyasus, and Meqelle itself on October 14,
1943 fell in rebel hands. They then expanded to Kilte-Awlalo, Wuqiro etc
in eastern Tigray.
In October 1943, the imperial army under the command of Abebe
Aregay with the support of the British Royal Air Force crushed the rebel-
lion.
 Cont…
–The Yejju Rebellion
• Overt dissidence of Yejju peasants in Wollo during Haile-
Selassie’s rule occurred three times.
• In 1948, peasants rose against the system after their appeal
against land alienation was ignored by the government.
• Throughout the 1950s, localized skirmishes between gov-
ernment forces and peasants expanded to Qobo, Hormat,
Tumuga, Karra-Qore
 Cont…
–The Gojjam Peasant Rebellion
• In 1950, a revolt broke out in Mota, Qolla-Daga Damot and Mecha
districts led by people like Dejach Abere Yimam. As a result tax rate
was reduced by 1/3, Kebede was removed and replaced by Haylu
Belew, a hereditary ruler of Gojjam. What was the cause?
• peasants were ordered to pay tax arrears and register their arms with
fees.
• an attempt was made to introduce the new agricultural tax and this fi-
nally sparked the 1968 uprising led by veterans of the resistance pe-
riod.
• The government was forced to transfer Dejazmach Tsehayu to Kafa,
declare amnesty, abandon the new tax, and cancel all tax arrears of
taxation going back to 1950.
• Finally the rebellion was subdued by the combined forces of the army,
police and nech lebash by the end of 1968.
cont…
 cont…
–The Gedeo Peasant Rebellion
• the major source of peasant discontent in Gedeo was land
alienation.
• In the 1960s, the Gedeo witnessed an unprecedented level
of land expropriation by members of the nobility
• Petitions and appeals to higher authorities to curb the con-
tinued land alienation proved futile.
• Then peasants refused to pay erbo, armed themselves with
traditional weapons and clashed with the imperial army at
Michille in 1960, as the Michille rebellion.
• Over a hundred peasants lost their lives. Finally, Afe Nigus
Eshete Geda, fined the elders locally called the hayicha ac-
cused of supporting the rebellion.
cont…
 C. Movements of Nations and Nationalities
• The question of nations and nationalities for equality, freedom and
autonomy was also assuming a significant development towards the
end of the imperial regime.
• In January 1963, the Mecha-Tulama Welfare Association (MTWA)
was formed.
• Founding members of the association included Colonels Alemu
Qitessa and Colonel Qedida Guremessa, Lieutenant Mamo Mezemir,
Beqele Nedhi, and Haile-Mariam Gemeda.
• improving the welfare of the Oromo through the expansion of educa-
tional, communication and health facilities in Oromo land are its ob-
jectives.
• It soon transformed into a pan-Oromo movement coordinating coun-
trywide peaceful resistance against the regime.
• This is evidenced by the successful rallies the association organized
in Gindeberet, Dandi, Arsi (Dera and Iteyya), etc.
 cont…
The regime was alarmed by the activities of the associ-
ation and determined to curb the mov’t
leaders of the association plotted to assassinate the em-
peror and change the regime in Nov 1966, but the plot
was foiled by security forces.
Mecha-Tulama was dissolved in 1967 following the
imprisonment and killing of its prominent leaders such
as Mamo Mezemir and Haile-Mariam Gemeda by the
regime’s forces. Br. Gen. Taddese Birru was captured
and eventually sentenced to death.
Later the death sentence was commuted to life impris-
onment and he was exiled to Gelemso where he stayed
until the outbreak of the 1974 revolution. In 1975 the
Derg executed Tadesse on allegation of instigating
armed struggle.
 cont…
• In 1971, an underground mov’t called the Ethiopian
National Liberation Front (ENLF) was formed by
Oromo elites
• In 1973, some members of the ENLF and other
Oromo nationalists formed the Oromo Liberation
Front (OLF) with the aim of establishing an inde-
pendent State of Oromia.
• After the revolution, OLF increased its military ac-
tivities
• the armed struggle which set off in the eastern part
of Ethiopia extended to other Oromo inhabited areas
 Cont…
But the biggest military challenge to the imperial
regime came from Eritrea.
In 1958, a number of Eritrean exiles founded the
Eritrean Liberation Movement (ELM) in Cairo.
In 1961, the ELM evolved into the Eritrean Libera-
tion Front (ELF) or Jabaha in Arabic.
Hamid Idris Awate who fired the first bullet of the
Eritrean armed struggle.
1966 the ELF challenged imperial forces through-
out Eritrea.
In June 1970, two splinter group liberation move-
ments emerged from the ELF.
 cont…
Popular Liberation Forces (PLF) and the Salfi Natsenet
Eritrea
The PLF was formed in the Red Sea area led by Osman
Salah Sabbe while Salfi Natsenet Eritrea (Front for Er-
itrean Independence) emerged under the leadership of
Isayas Afeworqi.
In early 1972, a new coalition of forces composed of
ELF-PLF led to the founding of the Eritrean People’s
Liberation Front (EPLF) or Sha'abiya in Arabic.
After a long and bloody civil war, the EPLF succeeded
in achieving de facto independence in 1991 and which
eventually was confirmed through referendum in 1993.
 D. The Ethiopian Student Movement (ESM)
• the Ethiopian student movement was building up in
the center as a strong opposition against the regime.
• radical opposition and were already marching on the
streets from 1965 onwards and was spreading to the
high schools by 1968.
• The parliament’s rejection of tenancy reform bill in
1964 triggered student protest in the following year
demanding “Land to the Tiller.”
 cont…
Factors that contributed to sharpening the students’
ideology include:
 the 1960 coup,
 scholarship students from different parts of Africa, and
 the Ethiopian University Service (EUS) in 1964
 the emergence of a radical group known as “the Croco-
diles”
students formed unions:
 the University College Union (UCU) in 1962 and
 the National Union of Ethiopian University Students (NUEUS) in 1963
 The Main Campus Student Union (MCSU) in 1965 and
 the University Student Union of Addis Ababa (USUAA) with its paper Tagel
(Struggle) established in1968.
other local and global issues were also raised.
 The Derg Regime (1974-1991)
• The mass uprising that finally put an end to the old regime came in
February 1974.
• From January 8 to 15, 1974, soldiers and non-commissioned officers
stationed at Negele Borana mutinied protesting their bad living con-
ditions.
• soldiers of the Second Division in Asmara, the Fourth Division in
Addis Ababa and the Air Force in Debre-Zeyt (Bishoftu) mutinied
demanding salary increment and political and economic reforms.
• The various units then set up a coordinating committee which be-
came a precursor of the later Derg, in order to coordinate their ac-
tions.
• Teachers throughout the country protested against the implementa-
tion of an education reform program Sector Review
 cont…
• taxi drivers went on strike demanding increase in transport fees (fifty
percent) due to rise of petrol prices
• The government responded by suspending the Sector Review, reduc-
ing petrol prices and raising the salaries of soldiers.
• the uprisings continued and on February 28, the cabinet of Prime Min-
ister Aklilu Habte-Wold resigned and was replaced by Endalkachew
Mekonnin.
• On March 8, the Confederation of Ethiopian Labor Unions (CELU)
staged a successful general strike.
• on April 20 by about 100,000 Muslim residents of the capital and their
Christian sympathizers.
• The Derg was officially formed on June 28, 1974 when it held its first
meeting at the headquarters of the Fourth Division.
 cont…
• For some time the Derg exercised power parallel with the
Endalkachew’s cabinet and the emperor tied up in a dual
state.
• on August 1, Endalkachew was imprisoned and replaced by
Lej Mikael Emiru as prime minister.
• The Derg also tried to define its ideology and declared the motto,
“Ethiopia Tikdem” (“Ethiopia First”), “Yaleminim Dem” (“Without
any bloodshed”).
• Finally, on September 12, Emperor Haile-Selassie I was de-
posed and detained at the Fourth Division headquarters.
• The Derg then proclaimed itself the Provisional Military Administra-
tive Council (PMAC) and assumed full powers.
 cont…
• All strikes and demonstrations were immediately banned.
• Very soon, civilian revolutionaries, who had started calling for the es-
tablishment of a provisional people’s government, was violently
crushed in a tank assault, on October 7.
• The motto of “Ethiopia First, without any bloodshed” thus failed
as early as then.
• On November 23, Lieutenant General Aman Mikael Andom, chair-
man of the PMAC was shot dead after a disagreement within the Derg
over the Issue of Eritrea.
• The killing continued and the Derg announced execution of some 52
prominent members of the old regime.
 Attempts at Socio-Economic Reform
• The Derg took a series of measures that aimed at fundamen-
tally transforming the country.
• Development Through Cooperation Campaign was inaugu-
rated
• Derg changed its slogan of “Ethiopia First” to “Ethiopian
Socialism.”
• In 1975, banks and insurance companies were nationalized
following a series of proclamations.
• Finally, in March 1975 the Derg made a radical land reform
proclamation
• On 26 July1975 another proclamation nationalized all urban
lands and extra houses.
 cont…
• In April 1976, PMAC proclaimed National Democratic
Revolution Program and set up the Provisional Office for
Mass Organization and Affairs (POMOA)
• There was the “Green Campaign” of 1978 aimed at
bringing about rapid economic dev’t.
• he “Red Star Campaign” of 1982 that aimed at solving
the Eritrean problem.
• Agricultural Marketing Corporation, resettlements and
villagization….
• The Derg used peasant associations to control the countryside and
the urban dwellers’ associations (kebele) to control the towns.
 cont…
• the leftist opposition to the Derg came from two rival Marx-
ist-Leninist political organizations:
• the Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Party (EPRP) and
• the All-Ethiopian Socialist Movement
• In the meantime, the Derg pushed by the dominant leftist political cul-
ture systematically abandoned “Ethiopian socialism” and embraced
Marxism-Leninism.
• With the setting up of the POMOA, Derg proclaimed the National
Democratic Revolution Program, which was the Chinese model for
socialist revolution
• In 1977, an alliance called Emaledeh (the Union of Ethiopian Marx-
ist–Leninist Organizations) was established as prelude to the forma-
tion of one vanguard party.
 Cont…
• In late 1976, the Derg itself was ideologically divided and
beset with the internal struggles.
• In the summer of 1977, the government of Somalia led by
Siad Barre waged a large-scale war against Ethiopia.
• the aggression of the State of Somalia made it possible for
the Derg to rally the population to its side.
• In early 1977, the Derg had severed relations with the USA
• Eritrean insurgents had encircled Asmara
• Ethiopian Democratic Union (EDU), was marching inroads
from the Sudan in the Satit-Humera region BUT was
crushed near the Ethio-Sudan borderland
 cont…
• In September 1984, the Workers’ Party of Ethiopia was in-
augurated
• Ethiopia Peasants’ Association (EPA), which ensured the
government’s control over peasants.
• Established in 1980, the Revolutionary Ethiopian
Women’s Association (REWA) and Revolutionary
Ethiopian Youth Association (REYA) played similar role.
• the Shengo (PMAC National Assembly) proclaimed the
People’s Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (PDRE) in 1987
and typically Communist constitution already on its way
• Colonel Mengistu became President; Fisseha Desta as Vice President
and Fiqre-Sellassie Wegderes as PM with five deputies.
 cont…
• In 1984/5, a more devastating famine than the one
in 1973/4 indicated the failure of the Derg’s eco-
nomic policies.
• The state responded by resettling the affected peo-
ple in less affected areas
• The villagization program that followed the reset-
tlement
• International politics too had turned against
Mengistu’s interest as his ally, the Soviet Union
ceased to be the source of his external support.
 cont…
• Rural-based movements fighting for national self-
determination thrived
» Oromo Liberation Front (OLF), active mainly in the Wallagga,
» the Islamic Front for Liberation of Oromia, based in Hararghe,
» the Afar Liberation Front,
» the Sidama Liberation Front,
» the Beni-Shangul Liberation Front and
» the Gambella Liberation Front.
• The two significant liberation fronts which could be consid-
ered to have jointly brought about the downfall of the Derg
were the EPLF and the TPLF.
 cont…
• the Derg turned its forces to the north
• In March 1988, EPLF scored a major victory
• In 1990, EPLF forces captured the port town of Massawa.
• The final decisive blow to Mengistu’s regime came to be administered
by the TPLF, it started in February 1975 as a small guerrilla band in
the northern region of Ethiopia
• In February 1989 TPLF scored its most decisive victory at Enda-Se-
lassie, Western Tigray, after a series of other military successes. At the
victory of Enda-Selassie, tens of thousands of government troops
were captured and their commanders were either killed or captured.
This resulted in the withdrawal of all government troops from Tigray.
TPLF then took control of the whole of Tigray and then started march-
ing into the neighboring provinces.
 cont…
• Meanwhile, In May 1989, commanders of almost all
military units, coordinated and led a coup against
Mengistu
• TPLF, after liberating Tigray, continued to move
forward and made the necessary organizational ad-
justments forming a bigger front known as the
Ethiopian Peoples’ Revolutionary Democratic Front
(EPRDF). The member organizations were:
» TPLF
» EPDM
» OPDO
» EDORM
» OLF
 cont…
• In 1990 and 1991 in consecutive and stunning campaigns,
EPRDF forces drove the Derg out of Gondar, Gojjam, and
Wollo
• In 1990, Oromo forces dismantled the Derg army of the
131st Brigade in battle that liberated Asosa and Bambasi in
the then Wollega province.
• In the meantime, negotiations for a peaceful end to the con-
flict were underway between the government, the EPLF, and
the TPLF in Atlanta, Nairobi, and Rome. In May 1991,
while the last of these negotiations were going on in Lon-
don, a series of events put an end to the regime.
 cont…
• On 1 July 1991, a handful of organizations of which many
were organized along ethnic lines assembled to review the
draft Charter prepared by the EPRDF and the OLF.
• The gathering was called the Peace and Democracy Transi-
tional Conference of Ethiopia.
• The USA was at the forefront in providing the necessary
diplomatic backing for the Peace and Democracy Confer-
ence.
• The Conference was attended by delegates from the UN, the
OAU, the G7, the US, the USSR, Sudan, Kenya, Djibouti
and Eritrea. Eritrea was represented by its future president,
Isayas Afeworki.
 cont…
• The Conference debated and approved the Transitional
Charter
• Representatives of 27 organizations formed a Council of
Representatives (COR) which acted as a legislative body
(‘Parliament’).
• In December 1994, the constitution of the Federal Demo-
cratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) was ratified, taking ef-
fect following federal elections in mid-1995.
• After the election, Meles Zenawi assumed the premiership
while Dr. Negasso Gidada became head of state.

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