LEARNING & MEMORY

Dr Maria Muhammad Ali

Physiology Department,FRPMC.
Objectives:
• Define learning and its classification.
• Discuss various forms of memory.
• Identify the parts of brain involved in memory processing and
storage
• Define synaptic plasticity
• Discuss the changes occurring during the development of different types of
memory
• Differentiate between short term and long term memory
• Discuss the process of consolidation of memory
• Discuss the pathophysiology of memory loss.
 Q)What is the difference between learning and memory?

• Learning is defined as the process by which new information is acquired.

or
• Learning is the neural mechanism by which a person changes his or her
behavior as a result of experiences.

• Memory is defined as the ability to recall past experience or information

or
• It is the ability to retain learned materials.
Classification of Memory And Learning

Declarative/Explicit
Memory

Semantic(Facts) Episodic (Events)

Lat & ant temporal Hippocampus,medial
cortex,prefrontal cortex temporal lobe,neocortex
 Classification of Memory And Learning

Nondeclarative/
Implicit Memory

Associative learning
Non-Associative learning
1.Classic conditioning 1.Habituation
2.Operant Conditioning 2.sensitization)
(Amygdala, (Reflex pathways)
cerebellum)

Skills,Habits
Priming
(Striatum,
(Neocortex)
cerebellum)
 Associative Learning
• When there is a relationship present between stimuli (auditory or
visual) and response is called associative learning

1.Classic Conditioning:
The conditioned stimulus (such as the
sound of a bell) is paired with and
precedes the unconditioned stimulus
(such as the sight of food) until the the
conditioned stimulus alone is sufficient
to elicit the response (such as salivation
in a dog)
 Associative Learning
2.Operant Conditioning
• It is a type of associative learning process
through which the strength of a behavior is modified
reinforcement or punishment.
• It is a form of conditioning in which
subject is taught to perform some
task in order to obtain a reward or
punishment.
• Operant conditioning is of 2 type
1. Reinforcement (increase behavior)
2. Punishment (decrease behavior)
 Non-associative Learning

• Simple way of learning that involves response to only one type of

stimulus.
• the subject learns whether to ignore or react to a certain stimulus
It has 2 types;
• A) Habituation
• B) Sensitization
 Non Associative Learning

1.Habituation:It is a decreased response to a repetitive

stimulus—, one that is neither rewarding nor
punishing.
• The brain tries to ignore such information which has
no consequences by causing the neuronal circuit to
lose its response to repeated events through a
process called Habituation.
• Exposure to a stimulus first time is novel and evokes a
response. But evokes less response when it is
repeated, so person becomes habituated and ignores
it.
• Birds stop responding to stimuli that
It involves inhibition of synaptic transmission, is
therefore referred to as negative memory. not meaningful
• Greater share of our memories is negative not
positive.
Mechanism of Habituation
 Non Associative Learning

2.Sensitization/Facilitation:
• Process by which body is made to become
more sensitive to a stimulus.
• When a stimulus is frequently repeated and
combined with another stimulus(pain or
pleasure),the effect is potentiated.
• One normally ignores stray dogs by
habituation, but if someone is bitten, will
become more attentive and develop aversion
reaction to them for long time
• Facilitation is referred as positive memory.
• Neurotransmitter serotonin plays major role
 Mechanism of Sensitization

• Strong or noxious stimulus →

facilitating interneurons (serotonin) ↑
→↑cAMP in presynaptic neurons →
block of potassium channels →
depolarization of presynaptic neurons
→ keep Calcium channels open →↑
Calcium influx →↑ release of
neurotransmitters →↑ behavioral
response to mild stimuli
 ANATOMICAL BASIS OF MEMORY

• Depends on the synapse in brain. Synapses for

memory coding are slightly different from other
synapses.

Two separate presynaptic terminals are present

here.
• 1-One of the terminals is primary presynaptic
terminal, which ends on postsynaptic neuron as in
conventional synapse. This terminal is called
sensory terminal, because sensations are
transmitted to the postsynaptic neuron through this
terminal.

• 2-Other presynaptic terminal ends on the sensory

terminal itself. This terminal is called facilitator
terminal.
 PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF MEMORY

• Memories are stored in the brain by altering the sensitivity of synaptic transmission
either by facilitation or habituation.
• Memory trace: Associative effect of stimulating the facilitator and sensory terminal at
the same time results in increase in sensitivity of the sensory terminal, establishing
the memory trace.
• Once established, they can be selectively activated to produce memories.
• Memory traces can occur at all levels of nervous system, even spinal cord reflexes..
 Classification of
Memory
• (1) Short-term memory(recent memory), which
includes memories that last for seconds or at most
minutes unless they are converted into longer-term
memories;
• Working memory(during the course of intellectual
reasoning but terminated when the problem is
resolved).is an eg of short term memory.

• (2) Intermediate long-term memories, which last for

days to weeks but then fade away.

• (3) Long-term memory(remote memory), which, once

stored, can be recalled up to years or even a lifetime
later.
 CLASSIFICATION OF MEMORY

1. Short-term memory
• If not recalled repeatedly, it may be forgotten. Synaptic Potentiation
Train of impulses passes along the
• Maybe interrupted by factors such as stress, presynaptic terminal
↓
trauma, drug abuse, etc. the amount of calcium ions in
presynaptic terminal increases
Mechanism: with each impulse
• Due to presynaptic facilitation or inhibition. ↓
there is prolonged release of
• Continual neural activity around a memory trace in neurotransmitter at the synapse.
reverberating circuit
• Increase in number of presynaptic terminals and
size of the terminals(temporary)
2.Intermediate Long term Memory:
• Lasts for days to weeks but then fade away.
• If memory traces are activated to become permanent, then they form long term memory.

3.Long-term memory
• Long-term memory is more resistant and is not disrupted easily.
• Structural changes at the level of synapse:
• Increase in the no of presynaptic terminals,
• Increase in the no of transmitter vesicles(protein synthesis).
• Increase in the vesicle release sites.
• Structural changes in the dendritic spines that permit transmission of stronger signals.
• Dependent on changes on NMDA receptor.
• Increase in intracellular Calcium.
• However, if a drug is given that blocks protein synthesis in presynaptic membrane ,structural
changes will not occur.
 Plasticity
Neuroplasticity or brain plasticity can
be defined as the ability of the brain to
change its activity in response to
intrinsic or extrinsic stimuli by
reorganizing it structure, function or
connections.
Synaptic plasticity is change that
occurs at synapses.
 CONSOLIDATION OF MEMORY
• Process by which a short-term memory is crystallized into a long-term memory
is called memory consolidation.
• Time :5-10 min to 1 hour.
• During consolidation, new memory is stored along with other memories of the
same type.
• Consolidation causes permanent facilitation of synapses. It requires synthesis
of mRNA and proteins in the neurons.
• Areas of brain involved:
• Papez circuit (closed circuit between hippocampus, thalamus, hypothalamus
and corpus striatum) are the main sites of memory encoding.
• Frontal and parietal areas are also involved in memory storage.
• Anterior and lateral temporal lobe
• Medial temporal lobe
• Amygdala
• Consolidation is possible by
1.Rehearsal mechanism: Study in depth than large amount superficially.
2.Codification: Brain pulls out similar information from the memory storage
and then compare for similarities and differences between the old and new.
These similarities and differences are stored rather than unprocessed new
information
• Factors that can block consolidation of memory:
1. Brain convulsions
2. Deep G/A
3. Brain Concussion
4. Mental fatigue
5. Any effect that temporarily blocks dynamic function of the brain.
• Factors that facilitate consolidation of memory:
1. Common stimulants are caffeine, physostigmine, amphetamine, nicotine,
strychnine and metrazol.
2. Rehearsal
• Why hippocampus is important in storing memory?
Hippocampus is among the most important output pathway from reward
and punishment areas of limbic system. Therefore hippocampus along with
medial nucleus of thalamus decides which thoughts are important to be
worthy of memory on the basis of reward or punishment.
• What is the function of thalamus?
It helps the person to “search” the memory storehouse and “read out "the
memory.
 Amnesia
• Inability to recall memories is called amnesia.
• It is of 2 type
Retrograde Amnesia:
• Inability to recall memories from the past is
known as retrograde amnesia.
• Amnesia is much greater for recent events rather
than for events of distant past.
Anterograde Amnesia:
• Inability of a person to establish new long term
memories of those types of information that are
basis of intelligence is called anterograde
amnesia.
• Loss of explicit memory but not implicit
• This occurs on removal of hippocampus.
3. Alzheimer Disease
• It is a progressive neurodegenerative
disease due to degeneration of neurons in
many parts of brain, particularly cerebral
hemispheres, hippocampus and pons.
• Synthesis of acetylcholine decreases due
to lack of enzyme choline
acetyltransferase.
• Dementia is the common feature of this
disease (progressive deterioration of
intellect, emotional control, social behavior
and motivation associated with loss of
memory)
 Exercise and Learning

Exercise is the single most important thing a person can do to improve

their learning.
Research has discovered that exercise stimulates the production of a
protein called FNDC5 that is released into the bloodstream.
FNDC5 stimulates the production of another protein in the brain
BDNF, which in turns stimulates the growth of new nerve cells and
synapses – the connection points between nerve cells whose capacity
and efficiency underlie superior intelligence.
(Journal of Cell Metabolism, 2013)
Exercise Produces BDNF

• Make new learning easier

• Improves brain health

• Is a stress inoculator

• Makes the brain cells more resilient

(Ratey, 2008)