Computer Networks

Week # 11

CS & IT Department
The University of Lahore

Powerpoint Templates
1
 What is Subnet Mask?

IPv4 address has two components, the network part and the host part.

In fact IPv4 address , is a combination of IPv4 address and Subnet

mask

The purpose of subnet mask is to identify which part is the network

part and which part is the host part.

Subnet mask is a 32 bit number where all the bits of the network
part are represented as 1 and all the bits of the host part are
represented as 0.
For example, for a Class C Network, 192.168.10.0, the address part
and the subnet mask is 255.255.255.0
2
Subnet and Subnetting
A logical, visible subdivision of an IP network is called
subnet or subnetwork.
 It is created by dividing the host identifier
Subnetting is the practice of dividing a network into two
or more networks.
In subnetting, a class A or class B or class C block is
divided into several subnets (each subnet with larger
prefix length than the original network).
For example, divide the class A into four subnets,
then each subnet will have prefix length as 10 (take two
bits from host id part in order to obtain subnets).

3
Subnetting
Subnetting is done by taking the bits from host part and
adding it to the network part
Remember the following [as already covered]
If all the bits in the host part are "0", that represents the
network id (network address)
If all the bits in the host part are "0" except the last bit
(RMb), it is the first usable IPv4 address
If all the bits in the host part are "1" except the last bit
(RMb), it is the last usable IPv4 address
If all the bits in the host part are "1", that represents the
broadcast

4
 Class C – 1 bit subnetting
Consider class c network 192.168.10.0 (subnet mask is 255.255.255.0)
 If we include one bit from the host part to the network part, the
subnet mask changes into 255.255.255.128.
 The single bit can have two values in last octet, either 0 or 1 (so we
can get two subnets with a single bit subnetting)
 11000000.10101000.00001010.0 | 0000000
11111111.11111111.11111111.1 | 0000000
 So the network 192.168.10.0 is divided into
two networks,
 each network has 128 total addresses of
which 126 are usable

 Thetwo are used in each subnet to represent the network
subnet mask for one bit subnetting is 255.255.255.128.
address and broadcast address. 5
 Class C – 1 bit subnetting
SN No. Description Binaries Decimal

1 Network 11000000.10101000.00001010.00000000 192.168.10.0

Address
First usable 11000000.10101000.00001010.00000001 192.168.10.1
address
Last usable 11000000.10101000.00001010.01111110 192.168.10.126
address
Broadcast 11000000.10101000.00001010.01111111 192.168.10.127
Address
2 Network 11000000.10101000.00001010.10000000 192.168.10.128
Address
First usable 11000000.10101000.00001010.10000001 192.168.10.129
address
Last usable 11000000.10101000.00001010.11111110 192.168.10.254
address
Broadcast 11000000.10101000.00001010.11111111 192.168.10.255
Address
6
 Class C – 2 bit subnetting
SN No. Description Binaries Decimal
1 NA 11000000.10101000.00001010.00000000 192.168.10.0
1st 11000000.10101000.00001010.00000001 192.168.10.1
Last 11000000.10101000.00001010.00111110 192.168.10.62
BA 11000000.10101000.00001010.00111111 192.168.10.63
2 NA 11000000.10101000.00001010.01000000 192.168.10.64
1st 11000000.10101000.00001010.01000001 192.168.10.65
Last 11000000.10101000.00001010.01111110 192.168.10.126
BA 11000000.10101000.00001010.01111111 192.168.10.127
3 NA 11000000.10101000.00001010.10000000 192.168.10.128
1st 11000000.10101000.00001010.10000001 192.168.10.129
Last 11000000.10101000.00001010.10111110 192.168.10.190
BA 11000000.10101000.00001010.10111111 192.168.10.191
4 NA 11000000.10101000.00001010.11000000 192.168.10.192
1st 11000000.10101000.00001010.11000001 192.168.10.193
Last 11000000.10101000.00001010.11111110 192.168.10.254
7
BA 11000000.10101000.00001010.11111111 192.168.10.255
 Class C – 3 bit subnetting
SN No. Description Binaries Decimal
1 NA 11000000.10101000.00001010.00000000 192.168.10.0
1st 11000000.10101000.00001010.00000001 192.168.10.1
Last 11000000.10101000.00001010.00011110 192.168.10.30
BA 11000000.10101000.00001010.00011111 192.168.10.31
2 NA 11000000.10101000.00001010.00100000 192.168.10.32
1st 11000000.10101000.00001010.00100001 192.168.10.33
Last 11000000.10101000.00001010.00111110 192.168.10.62
BA 11000000.10101000.00001010.00111111 192.168.10.63
…………….
8 NA 11000000.10101000.00001010.11100000 192.168.10.224
1st 11000000.10101000.00001010.11100001 192.168.10.225
Last 11000000.10101000.00001010.11111110 192.168.10.254
BA 11000000.10101000.00001010.11111111 192.168.10.255

8
 Class B – 1 bit subnetting
Consider class B network 172.16.0.0 (subnet mask is 255.255.0.0)
 If we include one bit from the host part to the network part, the
subnet mask changes into 255.255.128.0.
 The single bit can have two values in last octet, either 0 or 1 (so we
can get two subnets with a single bit subnetting)
 10101100.00010000.0 | 0000000.00000000
11111111.11111111.1 | 0000000.00000000
 So the network 172.16.0.0 is divided into
two networks,
 each network has 32768 total addresses
of which 32766 are
usable
 two are used in each subnet to represent the network
address and broadcast address. 9
 Class B – 1 bit subnetting
SN No. Description Binaries Decimal

1 Network
10101100.00010000.00000000.00000000 172.16.0.0
Address

First address 10101100.00010000.00000000.00000001 172.16.0.1

Last address 10101100.00010000.01111111.11111110 172.16.127.254

Broadcast
Address 10101100.00010000.01111111.11111111 172.16.127.255

2 Network
10101100.00010000.10000000.00000000 172.16.128.0
Address

First address 10101100.00010000.10000000.00000001 172.16.128.1

Last address 10101100.00010000.11111111.11111110 172.16.255.254

Broadcast
Address 10101100.00010000.11111111.11111111 172.16.255.255
10
 Class B – 2 bit subnetting
SN No. Description Binaries Decimal
1 NA 10101100.00010000.00000000.00000000 172.16.0.0
1st 10101100.00010000.00000000.00000001 172.16.0.1
Last 10101100.00010000.00111111.11111110 172.16.63.254
BA 10101100.00010000.00111111.11111111 172.16.63.255
2 NA 10101100.00010000.01000000.00000000 172.16.64.0
1st 10101100.00010000.01000000.00000001 172.16.64.1
Last 10101100.00010000.01111111.11111110 172.16.127.254
BA 10101100.00010000.01111111.11111111 172.16.127.255
3 NA 10101100.00010000.10000000.00000000 172.16.128.0
1st 10101100.00010000.10000000.00000001 172.16.128.1
Last 10101100.00010000.10111111.11111110 172.16.191.254
BA 10101100.00010000.10111111.11111111 172.16.191.255
4 NA 10101100.00010000.11000000.00000000 172.16.192.0
1st 10101100.00010000.11000000.00000001 172.16.192.1
Last 10101100.00010000.11111111.11111110 172.16.192.254
11
BA 10101100.00010000.11111111.11111111 172.16.192.255
 Class A – 1 bit
subnetting
Consider class A network 10.0.0.0 (subnet mask is 255.0.0.0)
 If we include one bit from the host part to the network part,
the
subnet mask changes into 255.128.0.0.
 The single bit can have two values in second octet, either 0 or
1 (so we can get two subnets with a single bit subnetting)
 00001010.0 | 0000000.00000000.00000000
11111111.1 | 0000000.00000000.00000000
 The network 10.0.0.0 is divided into two networks, each
network has 8388608 total IPv4 Addresses and 8388606
usable IPv4 Addresses (two IPv4 Addresses are used in each
subnet to represent the network address and the directed
broadcast address).
12
 Class A – 1 bit
SN No
subnetting
Description Binaries Decimal

Network Address 00001010.00000000.00000000.00000000 10.0.0.0

First IPv4 address 00001010.00000000.00000000.00000001 10.0.0.1

1
Last IPv4 address 00001010.01111111.11111111.11111110 10.127.255.254

Broadcast Address 100001010.01111111.11111111.11111111 10.127.255.255

Network Address 00001010.10000000.00000000.00000000 10.128.0.0

First IPv4 address 00001010.10000000.00000000.00000001 10.128.0.1

2
Last IPv4 address 00001010.11111111.11111111.11111110 10.255.255.254

Broadcast Address 00001010.11111111.11111111.11111111 10.255.255.255

13
 Class A – 2 bit
N No Description Binaries Decimal
subnetting
Network Address 00001010.00000000.00000000.00000000 10.0.0.0
First IPv4 address 00001010.00000000.00000000.00000001 10.0.0.1
1
Last IPv4 address 00001010.00111111.11111111.11111110 10.63.255.254
Broadcast Address 00001010.00111111.11111111.11111111 10.63.255.255
Network Address 00001010.01000000.00000000.00000000 10.64.0.0
First IPv4 address 00001010.01000000.00000000.00000001 10.64.0.1
2
Last IPv4 address 00001010.01111111.11111111.11111110 10.127.255.254
Broadcast Address 00001010.01111111.11111111.11111110 10.127.255.255
Network Address 00001010.10000000.00000000.00000000 10.128.0.0
First IPv4 address 00001010.10000000.00000000.00000001 10.128.0.1
3
Last IPv4 address 00001010.10111111.11111111.11111110 10.191.255.254
Broadcast Address 00001010.10111111.11111111.11111111 10.191.255.255
Network Address 00001010.11000000.00000000.00000000 10.192.0.0
First IPv4 address 00001010.11000000.00000000.00000001 10.192.0.1
4
Last IPv4 address 00001010.11111111.11111111.11111110 10.255.255.254 14
Example: Route 193.205.102.36
 Classless Addressing
 Classless addressing is a short term solution to solve
the address depletion problem
 Uses the same address space but change the distribution
of addresses to provide a fair share to each organization.
 Still uses the IPv4 addresses (class privilege was
removed from the distribution)
 The long-range solution already devised called IPv6
 The larger address space is obtained by increasing the
length of IP addresses (128 bits)
 It means that format of IP packets need to be changed

16
Classless Addressing
 In classless addressing, variable-length blocks are
assigned that belong to no class.
 the entire address space is divided into blocks of
different
sizes.
 Classless addressing
 uses a variable number of bits for the network and
host portions of the address.
 treats the IP address as a 32 bit stream of ones and
zeroes,
 where the boundary between network and host
portions can fall anywhere between bit 0 and bit 31.

17
 Classless Addressing
 How to find the prefix length if an address is given?
 As prefix length is not inherent in the address
 Need to separately give the length of the prefix
 So, Prefix length is added to the address, separated
by a slash
 The notation is informally referred to as slash
notation and formally as classless
interdomain routing or CIDR

Format of classless addressing address

18
 Classless Addressing
 The network portion of an IP address is determined by
how many 1's are in the subnet mask.
 A Subnet Mask is used to divide the IP address
into network and host addresses
 A mask is a 32-bit number in which the n leftmost bits are
Is and the 32 - n rightmost bits are 0s
 In x.y.z.t/n
 x.y.z.t defines one of the addresses and
 the /n defines the mask

19
Tabl Prefix lengths
e

Thus, Classful addressing is a special case of classless

addressing
 Example 1: What is the first address in the block if
one of the addresses is 167.199.170.82/27?

Solution: The prefix length is 27, which means that we

must keep the first 27 bits as is and change the remaining
bits (5) to 0s. The following shows the process:

Address in binary: 10100111 11000111 10101010

01010010
Keep the left 27 bits: 10100111 11000111 10101010
01000000
Result in CIDR notation: 167.199.170.64/27

21
Example 2: What is the first address in the block if one
of the addresses is 140.120.84.24/20?
Answer: The first address is 140.120.80.0/20

22
 Example 3: Find the number of
addresses in the block if one of the addresses is
140.120.84.24/20.

Solution: The prefix length is 20. The number of addresses

in the block is 232−20 or 212 or 4096. Note that
this is a large block with 4096 addresses.

Note: The number of addresses can also be found by

complementing the mask, interpreting it as a
decimal number, and adding 1 to it.

23
Example 4: find the first and last address in the block
if one of the addresses is 140.120.84.24/20.

Answer: The first address is 140.120.80.0/20 (set

all bits of host part to 0)
The last address is 140.120.95.255/20 (set all bits of
host part to 1)
Another way to find the last address:
Add the mask complement to the beginning address to find
the
last address.
140 . 120 . 80 .

0 24
0
 Example 5: Find the block if one of
the addresses is 190.87.140.202/29.

Solution: To find the first address, we notice that the mask (/29)
has five 1s in the last byte. So write the last byte as powers of 2 and
retain only the leftmost five as shown below:
202 ➡ 128 + 64 + 0 + 0 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 0
The leftmost 5 numbers are ➡ 128 + 64 + 0 + 0 + 8
The first address is 190.87.140.200/29
The number of addresses is 232−29 or 8. To find the last address,
use the complement of the mask. The mask has twenty-nine 1s; the
complement has three 1s. The complement is 0.0.0.7. Add this to
the first address to get 190.87.140.207/29. So, the first address is
190.87.140.200/29, the last address is 190.87.140.207/29. There are
only 8 addresses in this block. 25
Previous Example: Network Configuration

In classless addressing, the last address in the block does

not necessarily end in 255.
26
In classless addressing, an address can belong to
many blocks (depending on value of prefix associated
with that block).
 For example, the address 230.8.24.56 can belong to

Prefix length Block

From To
16 230.8.0.0 230.8.255.255
20 230.8.16.0 230.8.31.255
26 230.8.24.0 230.8.24.63
27 230.8.24.32 230.8.24.63
29 230.8.24.56 230.8.24.63
31 230.8.24.56 230.8.24.57

27
 Variable Length Subnet Mask (VLSM)
 VLSM is a way of further subnetting a subnet.

 we can allocate IPv4 addresses to the subnets by the exact

need by using VLSM

 VLSM allows us to use more than one subnet mask within the
same network address space.

 In classful addressing, we can divide a network only

into subnets with equal number of IPv4 addresses.

 VLSM allows to create subnets from a single network

with unequal number of IPV4 addresses
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 Variable Length Subnet Mask (VLSM)
 Suppose we want to divide 192.168.10.0 (a Class C
network) into four networks each with unequal number of
address requirements as given.
Subnet A : 126 IPv4
Addresses. Subnet B : 62 IPv4
Addresses.
Subnet C : 30 IPv4 Addresses.
Subnet D : 30 IPv4 Addresses.
 Such division is not possible in classful addressing,
since it divide the network equally,
 but is possible with VLSM.

29
Two-level hierarchy in an IPv4 address

Three-level hierarchy in an IPv4 address

 Variable Length Subnet Mask (VLSM)
Division of 192.168.10.0/24 (original network) into four networks
with VLSM.

FIRST DIVISION
 Divide into two networks equally with 128 addresses (126
usable) using subnet mask 255.255.255.128
 Two subnets each with 128 addresses
1. 192.168.10.0/25 [255.255.255.128]
 11000000.10101000.00001010.00000000 [in binary]
11111111.11111111.11111111.10000000 [subnet mask]
2. 192.168.10.128/25 [255.255.255.128]
 11000000.10101000.00001010.10000000
11111111.11111111.11111111.10000000 [subnet mask]

31
 Variable Length Subnet Mask (VLSM)
SECOND DIVISION
 Divide second subnet 192.168.10.128/25 (obtained from first
devision) again into two networks, each with 64 addresses (62
usable) using subnet mask 255.255.255.192
 Two subnets each with 64 addresses
1. 192.168.10.128/26 [255.255.255.192]
 11000000.10101000.00001010.10000000 [in binary]
11111111.11111111.11111111.11000000 [subnet mask]
2. 192.168.10.192/26 [255.255.255.192]
 11000000.10101000.00001010.11 000000
11111111.11111111.11111111.11000000
[subnet mask]

32
 Variable Length Subnet Mask (VLSM)
THIRD DIVISION
 Divide second subnet 192.168.10.192/26 (obtained from second
devision) again into two networks, each with 32 addresses (30
usable) using subnet mask 255.255.255.224
 Two subnets each with 64 addresses
1. 192.168.10.192/27 [255.255.255.224]
 11000000.10101000.00001010.11000000 [in binary]
11111111.11111111.11111111.11100000 [subnet mask]
2. 192.168.10.224/27 [255.255.255.224]
 11000000.10101000.00001010.11100000
11111111.11111111.11111111.11100000

[subnet mask]

 So, splitting of 192.168.10.0/24 into four subnets using VLSM

with unequal number of addresses is done
33
Example: An organization is granted a block of addresses starting
with 17.12.14.0/26 (64 addresses). The organization needs to have
three sub-blocks of addresses to use in its three subnets: one sub-
block of 32 addresses, and two sub-blocks of 16 addresses each.
Design the sub-blocks and find out how many addresses are
still
available after these allocations.
Configuration and addresses in a subnetted network
Example: An organization is granted a block of addresses starting
with 14.24.74.0/24. The organization needs to have three sub-
blocks
of addresses to use in its three subnets: one sub-block of 10
addresses, one sub-block of 60 addresses, and one sub-block of 120
addresses.
Design the sub-blocks and find out how many addresses are still
available after these allocations.
Solution: There are 2 32-24 = 256 addresses in this block. The first
address is 14.24.74.0/24 and last address is 14.24.74.255/24 .
Assign addresses to subblocks starting with the largest and ending
with the smallest one.
Mask n1 for the first (largest) subnet 2 32-n1 must be 128 (a number
with power of 2 nearest to 120). So n1 = 25. We allocate 128
addresses instead of 120 to this subnet
The first address in this subnet is 14.24.74.0/25 and last address
is 14.24.74.127/25
Solution (previous example continue)
 Mask for the second subnet 232-n2 must be 64
(a with power of 2 nearest to 60). So n2 = 26
number
The first address in this subnet is 14.24.74.128/26
and last address is 14.24.74.191/26
 Mask for the third subnet 232-n3 must be 16
number
(a with power of 2 nearest to 10). So n3 = 28
The first address in this subnet is 14.24.74.192/28
and last address is 14.24.74.207/28
So we have 128+64+16 = 208 addresses in all
three subblocks.
 Therefore, 48 address are still left in reserve.
 Example
An ISP is granted a block of addresses starting with
190.100.0.0/16 (65,536 addresses). The ISP needs to
distribute these addresses to three groups of customers as
follows:
a. The first group has 64 customers; each needs
256 addresses.
b. The second group has 128 customers; each needs
128 addresses.
c. The third group has 128 customers; each needs
64 addresses.
Design the subblocks and find out how many addresses are
still available after these allocations.
 Example (continued)
Solution
Group 1
For this group, each customer needs 256 addresses. This
means that 8 (log2 256) bits are needed to define each host.
The prefix length is then 32 − 8 = 24. The addresses are
 Example (continued)

Group 2
For this group, each customer needs 128 addresses. This
means that 7 (log2 128) bits are needed to define each host.
The prefix length is then 32 − 7 = 25. The addresses are
 Example (continued)
Group 3
For this group, each customer needs 64 addresses. This
means that 6 (log264) bits are needed to each host. The
prefix length is then 32 − 6 = 26. The addresses are

Number of granted addresses to the ISP: 65,536

Number of allocated addresses by the ISP: 40,960
Number of available addresses: 24,576
Figure: An example of address allocation
and distribution by an ISP
IPv4 datagram format
A datagram is a variable-length packet consisting of two
parts: header and data.
 The header is 20 to 60 bytes in length
 contains information essential to routing and delivery
IPv4 datagram format
Header length (HLEN):
4-bit field defines the total length of the datagram header in
4- byte words.

When there are no options, the header length is 20 bytes, and

the value of this field is 5 (5 x 4 = 20).

When the option field is at its maximum size, the value of this
field is 15 (15 x 4 = 60).
IPv4 datagram format
Total length:
A 16-bit field that defines the total length (header plus
data) in bytes (limited to 65,535 (216 - 1) bytes).
Length of data =total length - header length

some physical networks are not able to encapsulate a datagram

of 65,535 bytes in their frames
datagram must be fragmented to be able to pass through
those networks
Example: An IPv4 packet has arrived with the first 8 bits as
shown:01000010.The receiver discards the packet. Why?
Solution: There is an error in this packet.
The 4 leftmost bits (0100) show the version, which is correct.
The next 4 bits (0010) show an invalid header length (2 × 4 =
8).
The minimum number of bytes in the header must be 20. The packet
has been corrupted in transmission.

Example: In an IPv4 packet, the value of HLEN is 5, and

the value of the total length field is 0x0028. How many
bytes of data are being carried by this packet?
Solution: The HLEN value is 5, which means the total number of
bytes in the header is 5 × 4 = 20 bytes (no options).

The total length is 40 bytes, which implies that the packet is carrying
20 bytes of data (40 − 20).
Maximum transfer unit
(MTU)

MTUs for some

networks
ADDRESS MAPPING
A packet starting from a source host may pass
through several different physical networks before
finally reaching the destination host.
The hosts and routers are recognized at the network
level by their logical (IP) addresses.
However, packets pass through physical networks to
reach these hosts and routers,
At the physical level, the hosts and routers are
recognized by their physical addresses.
ADDRESS MAPPING
We need to be able to map a logical address to its corresponding
physical address and vice versa.
 This can be done by using either static or dynamic mapping.

In dynamic mapping each time a machine knows one of the two

addresses (logical or physical), it can use a protocol to find the
other one.

Mapping Logical to Physical

 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
For Mapping Physical to Logical
 Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
 ARP: Address Resolution Protocol
Question: how to determine  Each IP node (Host,
MAC address of B Router) on LAN has ARP
knowing B’s IP address?
table
 ARP Table: IP/MAC
137.196.7.78 address mappings for some
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
 LAN<nodes
IP address;
137.196.7.2
MAC address; TTL>
137.196.7.
3
14  TTL (Time To
LAN Live): time after which
71-65-F7-2B-08-
address mapping will
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
53 be forgotten (typically
20 min)
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-
137.196.7.8 98
8
ARP protocol: Same LAN (network)
 A wants to send datagram to  A caches (saves) IP-to-
B, and B’s MAC address MAC address pair in its
not in A’s ARP table. ARP table until
 A broadcasts ARP query information becomes old
packet, containing B's (times out)
IP address
 Dest MAC address =  soft state: information
FF- that times out (goes away)
FF-FF-FF-FF-FF unless refreshed
 all machines on LAN  ARP is “plug-and-play”:
receive ARP query
 nodes create their
 B receives ARP packet,
replies to A with its ARP tables without
(B's) MAC address intervention from net
 frame sent to A’s administrator
MAC
address (unicast)
Internet Control Message Protocol
(ICMP)
The IP protocol has no error-reporting or error-
correcting mechanism.

The IP protocol also lacks a mechanism for host

and management queries.

The ICMP has been designed to compensate for the above

two deficiencies.
ICMP always reports error messages to the
original source
It is a companion to the IP protocol.
Internet Group Management Protocol
(IGMP)

The IP protocol can be involved in

two types of communication: unicasting and
multicasting.

The IGMPis one of the necessary, but

not sufficient, protocols that is involved in
multicasting.

IGMP is a companion to the IP protocol.

21.52
IPv6
ADDRESSES
IPv6
ADDRESSES
Despite all short-term solutions, address depletion is
still a long-term problem for the Internet. This and other
problems in the IP protocol itself have been the
motivation for IPv6.

An IPv6 address is 128 bits long

Abbreviated IPv6 addresses
 EXAMPLE
Expand the address 0:15::1:12:1213 to its original.

Solution
We first need to align the left side of the double colon to
the left of the original pattern and the right side of the
double colon to the right of the original pattern to find how
many 0s we need to replace the double colon.

This means that the original address is.