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AT _ G Jan 09

The document provides an overview of aircraft design and construction, focusing on wing configurations, construction methods, and hydraulic systems. It details the principles of wing design, stresses, and the importance of hydraulic systems in aircraft operations, including various components like fuel systems and internal combustion engines. Additionally, it emphasizes the significance of understanding fuel management and engine systems to prevent failures during flight.

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Lameck Mwanza
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
4 views253 pages

AT _ G Jan 09

The document provides an overview of aircraft design and construction, focusing on wing configurations, construction methods, and hydraulic systems. It details the principles of wing design, stresses, and the importance of hydraulic systems in aircraft operations, including various components like fuel systems and internal combustion engines. Additionally, it emphasizes the significance of understanding fuel management and engine systems to prevent failures during flight.

Uploaded by

Lameck Mwanza
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Airframe Configuration

Biplane
Monoplane
High wing
Mid wing
Low wing
Canard

Tricycle
Tail dragger
Wing Construction
Properties of a Wing:
• Light in weight.
• Adequate longitudinal stiffness.
• Adequate torsional stiffness.
STRESSES
Wing Construction
Main Components

Spar

Torsion Box
WING CONSTRUCTION

Honeycomb
Construction
Wing Construction
D-Spar Wing Construction
Monocoque Fuselage Construction
Girder Construction
Stressed Skin

Semi-
monocoque
Wing Design

 Primary role for which the aircraft is intended


 With WEIGHT of a/c & SPEED required known,
you can calculate the wing area that would
produce lift to get a/c airborne.
 This is done by using the ASPECT RATIO
 The wing-span is divided by its width to get the
Aspect ratio
Aspect Ratio
20 / 5 = 4 (LOW aspect ratio)

20

50

2
50 / 2 = 25 (HIGH aspect ratio)
Low Aspect Ratio

 Easy to build
 Strong
 Aerodynamically efficient at HIGH speeds
 HIGH INDUCED DRAG (Up to 25% of total drag
in cruise)
 If flying for range, ie below cruise speed, up to
50% of total drag
High Aspect Ratio

 10% INCREASE in span REDUCES induced drag


up to 20%
 Gliders have high aspect wings
 SMALLER wing tip vortices
 Better climb performance (Especially at higher
altitudes)
 To fly high, fast, climb quickly and long
range you need a high aspect ratio wing
Wing Planforms

 Constant Chord
 Semi- Tapered
 Tapered
 Swept wings

 WASHOUT
 To induce stalling at the wing root
 Airflow separation
Hydraulic Theory

The movement of the piston will depend on the


force that is applied on the piston as a result of fluid
pressure. The force will be equal to the fluid
pressure (P) multiplied by the area over which the
pressure is applied it’s the area of the piston (A).
Thus the resultant mechanical force F = P x A.
Hydraulic Systems
Hydraulic systems are based on the principle that liquids
are NOT COMPRESSIBLE, and that the transfer of such
liquids can be used to transfer Energy / Force
Hydraulic Theory
The basis of a closed hydraulic system consists of a
small piston that applies a force over a area. This results
in a pressure P being transmitted through the liquid. At
the other end of the system is a larger piston of area.
Since the pressure experienced on the face of this piston
is the same as that generated by the smaller one, it
follows that the resultant mechanical force on the larger
piston is equal to the pressure P multiplied by area. Thus
the force F2 is larger than the original force F1. In effect,
the force has been magnified by the ability of the system
to transmit the pressure P.

F=PxA
Brake Pedal Pressure Higher Actuator Pressure

F=PxA
“Master “Slave
Cylinder” Cylinder”
Hydraulic Fluids
DTD 585
This is a widely used fluid that is coloured red, its
mineral based and therefore requires the system to be
fitted with synthetic rubber seals.

CASTOR or VEGETABLE
These, as the name suggests, are made from natural
compounds, thus require only rubber seals in the
system and are generally coloured yellow (If
colourless, they are dyed BLUE).

SKYDROL
Another popular fluid that is coloured purple, and due
to its ingredients requires the system to have butyl
rubber seals.
Typical
Hydraulic
System
Non-Return Valve (NRV)
Hydraulic Disc Brake System
Hydraulic Disc Brake System
Landing Gear

“ You know you’ve forgotten to lower the undercarriage when it


takes full power to taxi back to the terminal”
Landing Gear
Oleo Struts
Oleo Struts
Oleo Struts
Shock Absorber
•The shock absorber has two primary functions, the
first to absorb the compression loads imposed by
the impact of landing

•The second to dampen the tendency to recoil, that


is to say, the shock absorbers tendency to rapidly
extend again immediately after absorbing the
landing impact

•The shock absorber consists primarily of two


cylinders which slide one inside the other much like
a telescope. To prevent one cylinder rotating inside
the other, torque links or toggles are used.
Shimmy Damper
2mm
on
75% Creep
Internal Combustion Engine
 Internal Combustion Engine
 The Fuel System
 The induction System
 The Ignition System
 The Cooling System
 The Oil System
 The Propeller
 Engine Handling
Internal Combustion Engine
Definitions
BDC / TDC

Stroke
TDC Stroke

BDC
Definitions
Clearance Total Swept
Volume Volume Volume
Definitions
Compression Ratio
Total Volume
=
Clearance
Volume
1 300 + 200
=
200

1 500
=
200

= 7.5 : 1 200 cc 1 300 cc


Clearance Swept
Volume Volume
Definitions

Volumetric efficiency in internal combustion engine design


refers to the efficiency with which the engine can move the
charge into and out of the cylinders. More correctly, volumetric
efficiency is a ratio (or percentage) of what volume of fuel and
air actually enters the cylinder during induction to the actual
capacity of the cylinder under static conditions.

Specific fuel consumption (SFC) is a measure of an engine's


efficiency. It is the rate of fuel consumption divided by the
power produced.
The Four Strokes

Remember the sequence!!


Gas Inlet and Outlet (Exhaust)
Components
Internal Combustion Engine
Components
Engine Components: Crankshaft
The Four Cycles
4 Stroke Cycle
Theoretical TDC
Inlet
Timing Valve
Open

Cycle X
Ignition
ion
s s

Ind
e
pr s t Exhaust

u
om u

Pow
a Valve

ctio
C x h Closed
E

n
er
Inlet
Exhaust Valve
Valve Closed
Open BDC
4 Stroke Cycle

Theoretical vs Practical Timing


• Valves: Limit in speed of operation.

• Valves: Limited flow when partially open.

• Ignition: Delay till max pressure.

• Ineffective crank angle.


Practical Inlet
Valve
TDC

Timing Open

Cycle Valve Lead

Ind
INDUCTION

u
ctio
•Inlet valve opens

n
before TDC
Valve Lead
•Inlet valve closes
after BDC
Valve Lag

Inlet Valve Lag


Valve
Closed

BDC
Practical Inlet
Valve
TDC

Timing Open

Cycle o n
iti
n
X

Ind
Ig Timing Advance

u
ctio
COMPRESSION

n
•Ignition takes place
Compression
before TDC
Timing Advance

Inlet
Valve
Closed

BDC
Practical Inlet
Valve
TDC

Timing Open

Cycle o n
iti
n
X

Ind
Ig
POWER

u
Pow

ctio
•Ignition takes

n
e
place Compression

r
before TDC
Timing Advance
•Exhaust valve Valve Lead
opens
before BDC
Valve Lead Inlet Exhaust
Valve Valve
Closed Open

BDC
Practical Inlet
Valve
TDC

Timing Open

Cycle o n
Valve
Overlap
iti
n
X

Ind
COMPRESSION Ig
s t

u
u

Pow
a

ctio
•Exhaust valve h
E x Exhaust
closes after TDC

n
e
Valve
Compression

r
Valve Lag Closed

•Inlet & Outlet


valves
both open at TDC.

Valve Overlap
Inlet Exhaust
Valve Valve
Closed Open

BDC
Radial Engine
Types of IC Engines
The Pilot has the greatest control over
the fuel and induction system. It is
thus not surprising that
mismanagement thereof causes the
vast majority of engine failures and
accidents!
Fuel System
Wing Tank Construction
Types of Tanks

 Plain aluminium tank bolted to the frame.


 Wing tanks – can be part of the A/C wing
structure & sealed off thus WET WINGS
 Bladder (Fuel cell) – used to increase fuel
capacity
 Tip tanks
 Under fuselage tanks
The Tank will consist of:

 Filler port with fuel cap


 Drain to take samples
 Outlet leading to carburetor
 Some form of venting to atmosphere
Venting

 Is of vital importance
 If the tank is only open at 1 side, suction at
the low pressure side inside the tank can
stop flow.
 This is called OIL- CANNING
 The tank will have a tube to the outside or a
vent in the fuel cap
The Fuel Drain

 The most common contamination of fuel


is water
 Causes:
 Condensation in a part empty tank
 Poorly fitted fuel cap in heavy rain
 Airfield supply contaminated

WATER IS HEAVIER THAN FUEL SO IT


WILL ACCUMULATE AT THE
BOTTOM/LOWEST POINT OF THE TANK
Drain

Vent
Fuel Selectors

 A simple On/Off selector or,


 A set of selectors with different options
varying between a/c types

Many ENGINE FAILURES OCCUR


BECAUSE OF MISUSE OF SELECTORS
ie, fuel starvation!
A pilot must fully understand the
fuel system and operation of
fuel selectors before flying any
aircraft

500’ is not a good place to start


the learning process!!
Fuel Pumps

 On purely gravity fed systems – no pumps


 Other gravity fed systems at least 1 pump
 A/C with no gravity feed usually have 2 pumps.
 Main is engine driven for normal operation
while engines are running,
 Stand-by is electrically driven (also called
BOOSTER PUMPS) are used for starting,
changing tanks, for take-off and landings,
aerobatics and act as back-up in case of
engine failure
Vapour Lock
Fuel Grades
 AVGAS l00LL is coloured BLUE
 Octane Rating is indication of the fuel’s
resistance to detonation
 If fuel of the correct Octane Value is not
available it is acceptable to use fuel of
the next HIGHER octane rating
 Use of a lower than prescribed grade is
likely to cause detonation
 The volatility of fuel is its vapour forming
tendency
Detonation
If Detonation is suspected:

1. Enrich Mixture

2. Reduce pressure in cylinders (Throttle back)

3. Cool Cylinders (Increase airspeed)

NOTE:
Detonation usually occurs in all cylinders as
it is a result of fuel-air mixture, temperature
and pressure, whereas Pre-ignition can exist in
one cylinder due to its condition (being too hot
or having carbon deposits)
 Check the fuel contents before every
flight
 Light aircraft do not always have reliable
fuel contents gauges – be warned
 Once airborne, monitor your fuel usage –
does actual consumption match the
planned consumption?
 Remember that NOT ALL FUEL IS
USABLE! Refer to the book
 Always respect the need for fuel reserves
 Induction System
 Carburettor Icing
 Fuel Injection
 Serviceability Checks and Handling
 Revision
Principle of Carburetion
Principle of Operation: Carburetion & Fuel Mixture
CARBURETTOR
Acceleration cam
Throttle Butterfly

Upper Piston
(Air valve)
Balance duct
Slow running
jet
Fuel
Inlet

Float chamber

Needle
Valve

Main Jet

Float

Venturi

Fuel
Diffuser

Airflow Enrichment jet


Mixture (Acceleration jet)
Fuel jet control Lower Piston
valve Slow running (Fuel valve)
Cut-off valve
Carburetion & Fuel Injection

Carburettor Icing
Carburetion & Fuel Injection
OAT 10-30°
Carburettor Icing Low Power
High Speed

Drop in manifold pressure


Hot unfiltered air (30°) from around exhaust area
If RPM increases, indication icing was present
Typical Injection System
Fuel Flow Fuel
Manifold Divider Distributor Spider
CARBURATION & FUEL INJECTION
Valve
MAP

Fuel
Discharge Fuel FF
Nozzles Injectors

Fuel
Air Intake NRV
Manifold Booster Pump

Air Throttle Injector


Assembly Pump

Fuel Return
Fuel Control Fuel
Assembly Control Unit
Internal Combustion Engine
 The ignition system provides the spark that
ignites the fuel are mixture within the cylinder
 The electrical current required is generated by a
magneto
 A magneto contains a magnet which rotates
between two coils
 Once the engine is running you can disconnect
the battery and the electrical system and “throw
them away”; the engine will keep running
 Consists of a small magnet rotating
between two coils.
 The primary coil is connected to the
ignition switch.
 Turned by mechanical linkage to the
crankshaft.
 Secondary coil is connected to the
distributor.
 Fluxing magnet produces a flow of
electric current in primary coil.
 If breaker points open, flow stops and the
magnetic field surrounding the primary
coil collapses inducing a very high
voltage the secondary coil.
 This electric current travels to the
distributor.
 From there it is directed along HIGH
TENSION LEADS (IGNITION HARNASS)
TO THE SPARK PLUGS IN THE CORRECT
FIRING ORDER.
 There are 2 separate spark plugs in each
cylinder.
 Each will be connected to 1 of the two
magnetos.
 Back-up system if 1 magneto fails.
 For starting one magneto may be fitted
with impulse coupling.
 For starting a more powerful spark will be
generated and will be “later” ie retarded.
 To aid starting, a magneto may be fitted with an
‘impulse coupling’
 When the engine is turning over slowly (such as
when the starter is operated), a spring loaded
coupling in one magneto (usually the left)
operates to provide a spark at the spark plugs
which is more powerful than usual and also
retarded
 Once the engine is running, the impulse
coupling disengages
 Occurs when early burning off incoming
air/fuel mixture takes place.
 Caused by “Hotspots” or excess heat in
the cylinder.
Electricity supply
 V = Potential Difference measured in
VOLTS
 I = Current flowing measured in AMPERE
 R = Resistance measured in OHM’s

V=IxR
Electricity storage device
Lead /Acid (Sulphuric acid)
Rated in Voltage and Amp Hrs
ie 30 Amp hrs = 15Amp for 2 hrs
30 Amp for 1hrs
10 Amp for 3hrs
Normally 12 or 24 Volts DC
Lead Acid Batteries
Electricity supply
Circuit protection devices
 Any device that produces electrical current
by creating an ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD
between magnets
 Engine driven
 DIRECT CURRENT
 Mostly on large a/c. Disadvantage weight
& size, low RPM - not very efficient
 Changes DC to AC COMMUTATOR
 Reverse flow prevented by a REVERSE
FLOW CUT-OUT RELAY
 Smaller, more current than generators at
lower RPM
 Main drawback – ALTERNATING CURRENT
 AC not used on A/C
 AC changed to DC by a RECTIFIER
 DIODE prevents reverse flow into the
alternator
 Needs battery power for EXCITATION
 Not self-contained
Alternating Current
( AC ).
Load.

Current In Amps.
2
Zero Value.
0
-2

-5

Alternator.
-8

Switch. Time In Seconds.


Alternating Current
( AC ).
Load.

5
Max Positive Value.

Current In Amps.
2
0
-2

Max Negative Value.


-5

Alternator.
-8

Switch. Time In Seconds.


 Cycle - One complete change of Direction of flow.

 Amplitude- The Peak value from the mean reference.

 Frequency - The number of complete cycles per

Second.

 Wavelength - The distance travelled during one Cycle in


meters.
Cycle.
Cycle.

90º

360º

0º 180º

270º

Cycle - One complete change of Direction of flow.


Icing
Types of ice removal

• Fluid
• Mechanical
• Thermal
• Electrical

The areas sensitive to ice accumulation

• Aerofoils.
• Propellers.
• Engine intakes.
• Windscreens.
• Pitot and static heads
Types of Ice Removal
Cooling
EFFICIENCY
30% Converted into mechanical energy.
40% Passed through exhaust system.
30% Absorbed into engine.
Overheating.
Breakdown of lubrication.
Engine failure.
Cooling
PURPOSE

Keep overall average


temperature low.
Space

Avoid local hot spots.


Sodium
Cooling
• Primary Types of Cooling

Liquid cooling
Air cooling

• Cooling Effect of Lubricant


Cooling
Liquid Cooling System
Header Tank Temperature
Air Vent Gauge

Cylinder Block

Pump

Radiator
 Oil pressure is normally measured just after
(downstream of) the oil pump
 Oil temperature is also measured before the oil
enters the ‘hot sections’ of the engine, often just
after the oil has passed through the oil cooler
 Low oil pressure and high oil temperature are
the signs of serious engine problems, divert
immediately to nearest airfield
Dry Sump System
Wet Sump System
Dipstick
Oil Press
sender
Filter

Oil Press
Regulating
valve

Bypass/ Oil Temp


thermostat sender

Cooler Pressure
pump
 Principles of Propellers
 The Fixed Pitch Propeller
 The Variable Pitch Propeller
 Constant Speed Unit
 Handling and Serviceability Checks
 Revision
Propeller Theory
The propeller transforms torque from the engine
into thrust. It is a rotating aerofoil that produces
lift in a forward direction

Note that for any given propeller “pitch” there will


be only one effective speed

The efficiency of a propeller reduces with increase


in altitude (decreasing density), explaining the
reduction of the thrust available on the thrust
curve
Efficiency Decreases
with Airspeed
Blade Twist
Propeller Definitions
Propeller Definitions
Basic Principles
Basic Principles
Basic Principles
Basic Principles

Blade Angle
Forces on Blade Element
Forces on Blade Element
Effect of Speed on Propeller
Efficiency
Effect of Speed on
Propeller Efficiency
Effect of Speed on
Propeller Efficiency
Propeller Efficiency
Propeller Efficiency
Blade Positions
Windmilling Propeller
Swing on Take-Off
• Torque reaction
• Slipstream effect
• Gyroscopic effect
• Asymmetric blade effect
Slip is the difference
Propeller Theory between the two.

Slip

Effective Pitch
Geometric Pitch

Effective Pitch is the Geometric Pitch is the


distance the blade actually distance the blade would
advances relative to the advance in one revolution at 0º
airflow. angle of attack. (Zero slippage)
Propeller Theory
The propeller transforms torque from the engine
into thrust. It is a rotating aerofoil that produces
lift in a forward direction

Note that for any given propeller “pitch” there will


be only one effective speed

The efficiency of a propeller reduces with increase


in altitude (decreasing density), explaining the
reduction of the thrust available on the thrust
curve
Propeller Efficiency

Aircraft has only throttle and mixture

Take Off Speed Cruise Speed


Propeller Efficiency

A variable pitch propeller would be ideal!


Propeller Efficiency
The propeller
tends to move
to the fine
pitch position
due to
centrifugal
force

We need to
be able too
counter this
NO CSU at
this stage!

Oil drain

Boosted engine oil


Oil drain

Boosted engine oil


T/O Power Climb Power Cruise Power
Throttle 32” Throttle 30” Throttle 28”
Pitch 2200 Pitch 2000 Pitch 1800
Constant Speed Unit (CSU)
Constant Speed Unit (CSU)
Constant Speed Unit (CSU)

Pivot
Spinning weights
Constant Speed Unit (CSU)

Underspeed

Fine (Oil Pressure)


Constant Speed Unit (CSU)
Constant Speed Unit (CSU)
Instruments
Instrument Overview
It is important to understand which instruments are going to be
discussed and where they obtain their information from. We are
going to look at the following instruments
 Pitot – Static Instruments.
Gyroscopic Instruments.
Instrument Overview

It is important to understand which instruments are going to be


discussed and where they obtain their information from. We are
going to look at Pitot – Static Instruments and Gyroscopic
Instruments in this syllabus.

Pitot – Static Instruments :


Airspeed Indicator ( ASI ) : supplied by Pitot and Static.
Altimeter : supplied by Static only.
Vertical Speed Indicator ( VSI ) : supplied by Static only.
Pitot Static Instruments
Pitot Static Instruments

ASI VSI ALT


Pitot Heat

Static Port

Pitot Tube
Instrument Overview
It is important to understand which instruments are going to be
discussed and where they obtain their information from. We are
going to look at Pitot – Static Instruments and Gyroscopic
Instruments in this syllabus.
Pitot – Static Instruments :
 Airspeed Indicator ( ASI ) : supplied by Pitot and Static.
 Altimeter : supplied by Static only.
 Vertical Speed Indicator ( VSI ) : supplied by Static only.
Gyroscopic Instruments :
 Artificial Horizon ( AH ) : supplied by the Vacuum pump
only.
 Directional Gyro Indicator ( DGI ) : supplied by the Vacuum
pump only.
 Turn And Slip Indicator : supplied by the Electrical system
for the Turn and Gravity for the Slip.
Gyroscopic Instruments
Pitot Tube
The basic Pitot probe is mounted where it will not be affected by the disturbed airflow
caused by the structure of the aircraft.

These errors are not completely removed and are called pressure and position errors.
These errors are corrected during the flight testing.

Manoeuvre Induced errors also exist at the Pitot probe and Static ports. These errors
are caused when the aircraft’s angle of attack changes and can last for several
seconds.

The Pitot probe measures the air pressure caused by the forward movement of the
aircraft also referred to as total pressure or ram air pressure.

The faster the aircraft is moving the higher the air pressure in the Pitot tube,
therefore the pressure inside the Pitot tube is directly proportional to airspeed.

The Pitot probe is also able to measure static pressure. Both Pitot and Static pressure
are used to supply the Airspeed Indicator or ASI. We can now use the formula :

Pitot Pressure = Dynamic Air Pressure + Static Air Pressure

The Pitot probe is electrically heated to prevent ice accumulation and has drain holes
at the bottom of the tube to prevent water accumulation.
Pitot Tube

Pitot
Pressure
Direction Of Air Flow

Static
Pressure
Static Static
Vent Vent

Pitot Pressure = Dynamic Air Pressure + Static Air Pressure


Pitot Tube
Static Port or Vent
Static pressure is the ambient air pressure at a given point in the
atmosphere.

 A Static port or vent is used to measure the ambient pressure acting on


the aircraft.

 A Static vent consists of a smooth plate that is flush mounted on


either side of the aircraft fuselage.

Two vents are used to equalise any pressures caused by the yaw of the
aircraft.

An emergency static vent is normally incorporated in the system and is


located inside the flight deck in a non- pressurised aircraft.

It must be noted that when using this emergency static vent the
pressure sensed in the flight deck is normally lower than ambient static
pressure by approximately 10 Mb.
Static Port or Vent
Pitot Static Instruments
Pressure Altimeter Introduction
The Pressure Altimeter is basically an Aneroid Barometer.
An Aneroid Barometer is used to measure the ambient Atmospheric
pressure or Static pressure.
This pressure measurement is then used to display aircraft altitude.
The Altimeter is calibrated for ISA conditions.
Pressure Altimeter
The following is a summary of the operation of the Pressure Altimeter
 The Pressure Altimeter measures the ambient Atmospheric pressure or Static
pressure.
 The Static pressure is measured by the Static port or vent and is fed into the
airtight case of the instrument.
 The Pressure Altimeter has a partially evacuated capsule supported by a leaf
spring inside the case.
 As the aircraft climbs the Static pressure decreases and the capsule will
expand.
 This expansion is transmitted through the linkages to indicate an increase in
altitude.
 As the aircraft descends the Static pressure will increase causing the capsule
to contract.
 This contraction is transmitted through the linkages to indicate a decrease in
altitude.
 A Bi- Metallic strip is incorporated into the suitable linkages to compensate for
the expansion or contraction of the linkages with temperature changes.
Pressure Altimeter Construction
Sealed Case

Static Vent
Altimeter Scale

Capsule
Linkages

Static Port Pointer

Baro Correction
Static pressure is measured at the Static port.
As the aircraft climbs the Static pressure decreases and the capsule expands.
This expansion shows an increase in altitude.
As the aircraft descends the Static pressure increases and the capsule will contract.
This contraction shows a decrease in altitude.
The Baro correction is used to compensate for any deviation in ISA conditions.
Altimeter Errors
Instrument Error :
These errors are caused by imperfections during manufacture and wear and tear
of the instrument.
There is another consideration, and that is the rate of pressure change of the
atmosphere with an increase in altitude is assumed to be constant.
As this assumption is not true the altimeter will be unreliable at higher altitudes.

0 to 5000 Feet equates to approximately 170 Mb.


35000 Feet to 40000 Feet equates to approximately 50 Mb.
60000 Feet to 65000 Feet equates to approximately 15 Mb.
Pressure and Position Error :
This error is caused by incorrect pressures being sensed at the Static vent due
to the disturbed airflow over the airframe.
This error is also caused by the disturbed airflow due to the positioning of the
Static vent on the airframe.
These errors are combined and a correction card can be produced.
Altimeter Errors
Manoeuvre Induced Error :
This error is produced by the changes in aircraft attitude and configuration or
when the Static vent is not aligned with the airflow i.e. a side slip or crabbed
flight in crosswind.

Time Lag Error :

It may take time for pressure changes at the Static vent to register on the
altimeter.
This is mainly due to the mechanical properties of the instrument.
 During a rapid climb the Altimeter lags and therefore under reads.
 During a rapid descent the Altimeter lags and therefore over reads.
Pressure Altimeter
Barometric Error :
The Altimeter is calibrated according to ISA conditions for atmospheric pressure.
If there is a deviation from the ISA pressure conditions an error will occur in the
Altimeter indications.
The pressure error can be corrected for by means of the barometric correction
scale.

Temperature Error :
The Altimeter is calibrated according to ISA conditions for atmospheric
temperature.
If there is a deviation from the ISA temperature conditions an error will occur in
the Altimeter.
The error is small at lower altitudes but significant at higher altitudes.
This error can be corrected by the altitude window on a navigation computer.
Altitude and Pressure Relationship
As the aircraft flies from a high pressure area to a low pressure area the atmosphere
becomes less dense.
The Altimeter capsules sense this drop in pressure.
As the pressure drops the Altimeter capsules start to expand.
The expansion of the capsules is indicated as an increase in altitude.
The pilot tries to maintain his assigned altitude and thus starts to descend the
aircraft.
The aircraft is thus moving closer to the ground for a constant assigned or
maintained altitude.
The altimeter over reads.
Altitude and Pressure Relationship
As the aircraft flies from a high pressure area to a low pressure area the atmosphere
becomes less dense.
The Altimeter capsules sense this drop in pressure.
As the pressure drops the Altimeter capsules start to expand.
The expansion of the capsules is indicated as an increase in altitude.

High to Low – Careful


The pilot tries to maintain his assigned altitude and thus starts to descend the
aircraft.

Go!
The aircraft is thus moving closer to the ground for a constant assigned or
maintained altitude.
The altimeter over reads.
Altitude and Temp Relationship
The aircraft flies from a high temperature area to a low temperature area at a
constant Pressure.
One must remember the QNH setting on the altimeter is a function of pressure at the
aircraft reduced to sea level by means of a formula 1 Mb per 30 Feet assuming ISA
pressure gradient.
In warm air, because of its lower density, the aircraft will have to be higher to obtain
the same pressure difference in Mb from sea level. The altimeter under reads.
In cold air, because of its high density the displacement of the aircraft for the same
Mb change will be less and the aircraft will be lower to the ground. The altimeter is
over reading.
Altitude and Temp Relationship
The aircraft flies from a high temperature area to a low temperature area at a
constant Pressure.
One must remember the QNH setting on the altimeter is a function of pressure at the
aircraft reduced to sea level by means of a formula 1 Mb per 30 Feet assuming ISA
pressure gradient.
In warm air, because of its lower density, the aircraft will have to be higher to obtain

Hot to Cold – Don’t be


the same pressure difference in Mb from sea level. The altimeter under reads.
In cold air, because of its high density the displacement of the aircraft for the same

Bold
Mb change will be less and the aircraft will be lower to the ground. The altimeter is
over reading.
The Q-Codes

 QFE – the barometric pressure at the AERODROME


LEVEL. The altimeter reads the height of the aircraft
above the reference point of the airfield. The reading
is variable
 QNH – the barometric pressure at the aerodrome
reduced to MEAN SEA LEVEL. The altimeter indicates
the height of the aircraft above mean sea level. This
height is known as ALTITUDE. The reading is variable
dependant on the sea level reading for that day
 QNE – the STANDARD SETTING when 1013,25 hPa is
set on the sub-scale. When using this setting, the
altitude indicated is called PRESSURE ALTITUDE and
the aircraft flies at flight levels. This reading is
constant as it uses a standard
Altitude Definitions
QNE:
This is the barometric pressure at the ISA reference point of 1013.25 Mb.
When the QNE is set in the altimeter subscale the altimeter will read the
following:
 Flight Level i.e. FL 090.
 Pressure Altitude i.e. 9000 Feet.
When QNE is set the altimeter reads altitude above the ISA reference level.

Airfield Pressure
860 Mb
Airfield Elevation
5010 Feet
ISA Reference
1013.25 Mb

QNH is 1027 Mb
Mean Sea Level
Altimeter Calculation
An aircraft leaves airfield Y, airfield pressure 960 Mb, and the altimeter reads airfield
elevation of 1860 Feet. The aircraft lands at airfield Z, elevation 1000 Feet, where the
altimeter reads 1270 Feet. What is the QNH at Z?

Altitude Difference  270 Feet


270 Feet Difference  9 Mb Pressure Difference

To make the Altimeter read correctly  1022 Mb - 9 Mb

QNH at airfeild Z  1013 Mb QNH


QNH 1022 Mb
1022 Mb 1270 Feet

Y
Z
1860 Feet
1000 Feet
QFE 960 Mb 62 Mb
Change
QNH 1013 Mb
QNH 1022 Mb
Sea Level
Pitot Static Instruments
Airspeed Indicator Construction

Sealed Case

Capsule

Pitot Tube

Static Vent

Linkages
Airspeed Indicator Construction

Sealed Case

Static Vent Capsule Static pressure

Pitot Tube Dynamic Linkages Pointer


+
Static

Low 0 High
Airspeed Indicator

Pitot = Dynamic + Static

Dynamic is directly proportional to airspeed


Airspeed Indicator Colour Coding

Vso
Vne Stall speed in the
Velocity never landing config
exceeded

Vs1
Yellow Arc Stall speed
Cautionary speed clean
band. In still air
only
White Arc
Vno Flap operating
Maximum normal band
operating speed

Vfe
Green Arc Maximum
Normal operating flap extended
speed band speed
 Vx - Best ANGLE of climb speed
 Vy – Best RATE of climb speed
 Vfe – Maximum speed with flap extended
 Vfo – Maximum flap operating speed
 Vle – Maximum speed with landing gear
extended
 Vlo – Maximum speed for landing gear
operation
 Va – Maximum manoeuvering speed
 Vne – Never exceed speed
 Vno – Normal operating speed
 Vs – Stalling speed
 Vso – Stalling speed in the landing
configuration
Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)

The following is a summary of the operation of the Vertical Speed Indicator ( VSI )

 The Vertical Speed Indicator uses the principal of pressure differential to measure and indicate a
rate of climb or descent.
 A capsule in an airtight case is supplied with Static Pressure from the Static vent.
 As the aircraft climb or descends the changing Static Pressure is fed directly into the capsule.
 The Static Pressure from the Static vent is also fed into the airtight case through a metering unit
or a choke.
 The Static Pressure is delayed by the choke and thus arrives in the case a few seconds later than
the capsule.
 This delay in Static Pressure causes a difference in pressure between the capsule and the case.
 This differential pressure causes the capsule to expand or contract depending on whether the
aircraft is climbing or descending.
 This expansion is transmitted through linkages to the indicator.
 The indicator will show a rate of climb or descent in feet per minute.
 In straight and level flight there is no differential and thus a zero indication.
Pitot Static Instruments
Vertical Speed Indicator
Construction
Sealed Case

Capsule

Choke

Static Vent

Linkages
Vertical Speed Indicator
Principle of Operation

Choke
“Wher
eI Static
was”
“Wher
Static eI
am” Lower = Climbing
Higher =
Descending
Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)

VSI
Pointer

Logarithmic
Scale

VSI
Adjustment
Instantaneous VSI
Accelerometer
Sealed Case Added

Capsule

Choke

Static Vent

Linkages
Gyroscopic Instruments

Gyroscopic Instruments :

 Artificial Horizon ( AH ) : supplied by the vacuum pump only.


 Directional Gyro Indicator ( DGI ) : supplied by the vacuum pump only.
 Turn And Slip Indicator : supplied by the electrical system for the turn and
gravity for the slip.
Gyroscopic Instruments
Gyroscopic Instruments
AH

Engine Driven
Vacuum Pump

DGI

Air Filter

Vacuum Gauge
Gyroscopic Instruments
Types of Gyros

 Tied Gyro – DIRECTIONAL INDICATOR

 Earth Gyro - ATTITUDE INDICATOR

 Rate Gyro – TURN CO - ORDINATOR


 Depends on :
 The mass of the gyro
 The speed it is rotating at
 Radius of the motor
 Movement in the horizontal plane – DRIFT
 Movement in the vertical plane – TOPPLE

 Real wander – Actual movement


 Apparent wander – Movement in relation
to an observer on earth ( Earth rotation
and movement of observer over the
earth).
Artificial Horizon (AH)

Roll Scale
Angle of Bank
Indicator

Aircraft Symbol
Horizon

Pitch Scale

Pitch Correction
Artificial Horizon (AH)
Fixed Point
In Space

As the aircraft starts to pitch down the case, outer Gimbal and instrument
panel pitch down.
The vertical axis Gyroscope maintains its rigid position in space.
This rigidity causes a movement between the inner and outer Gimbal.
This movement causes the horizon bar to move and the sky plate to move.
The movement of the sky plate shows the pilot pitch attitude.
Artificial Horizon: Roll Indication
Fixed Point
In Space

As the aircraft starts to roll the vertical axis Gyroscope maintains its rigidity in space.
The aircraft, the aircraft symbol and the roll index move around the vertical axis Gyroscope.
The movement between the aircraft and the Gimbal assembly indicates roll information to the
pilot.
Gyroscopic Instruments
Directional Gyroscope (DGI)
Sealed Case

Air Driven
Horizontal Axis
Rotor

Inner Gimbal

Outer Gimbal

Gimbal Assembly
Able to Rotate on
Bearing Pivot

Gear Train

Direction Card
Directional Gyroscope: Errors
 Real and Apparent “Wander”
 Real wander is as a result of mechanical “wear and
tear”; heading will slowly wander away. Use compass
to reset
 Apparent wander is caused by the rotation of the earth
and the movement of the aircraft. Gyro rigid in space
and not to a point on the surface of the earth. HI seems
to indicate heading change. Dependent on latitude and
can be adjusted
 Transport Wander
 As the aircraft moves over longer distances a
correction will have to be made
 Check the DI against the Compass
Gyroscopic Instruments
Turn and Slip Indicator
 Uses a Rate Dyro to measure rate of turn
 Axis of the Gyro is horizontal and a spring is
attached to the axis
 Yawing precesses into pitch which causes the
gyro to tilt and and the needle attached to the
gimbal measures this as rate of turn
 Rate One turn is 3° per second or 180° in one
minute or 360° in two minutes
 As a rule of thumb, to find angle of bank
necessary for rate one turn is to divide the TAS
by 10 and add 7. Thus turn at 100 kts requires
17° angle of bank (10 + 7)
 Turn indicator does NOT measure angle of bank,
only the rate of change in direction
Turn and Slip Indicator
Rate One Turn
Reference Markers
Rate Of Turn
Pointer

Rate Gyroscope
Electrical Failure Flag

Calibrated For 360° Turn


In 2 Minutes
Slip Indicator
Turn Coordinator

 To overcome the disadvantage of the indication of


direction of roll or bank angle
 Gyro is mounted at about 30° to the horizontal so
that the gyro will now sense direction and indicate
roll as well as yaw
 In a turn coordinator, when the wings are banked to
start a turn, the turn coordinator will show this
bank
 As the turn develops, so the rate of turn is
indicated
 The turn coordinator does NOT give an indication of
pitch
Turn and Slip Indicator

Force of Gravity
Turn and Slip Indicator
Balanced Turn

Centrifugal
Force

Resultant Force
Force of Gravity
Turn and Slip Indicator
Slip – Excessive
Bank

Centrifugal
Force

Resultant Force
Force of Gravity
Turn and Slip Indicator
Skid – Insufficient
Bank

Centrifugal
Force

Resultant Force
Force of Gravity
 Used for thousands of years
 Variation
 Deviation
 Dip
 Error caused by Dip greatest on North/South headings
and zero on West/East headings
 ONUS (Overshoot North – Undershoot South)

 Acceleration Errors
 Greatest on Easterly and Westerly headings and least
on North/South headings; (SAND)
 Deceleration causes an apparent turn to the North and
acceleration an apparent turn to the South
 In both hemispheres :
 ACCELERATION = Apparent turn to
CLOSEST pole
 DECELLERATION = Apparent turn to the
equator
 Compasses in the southern hemisphere have a small weight
on their northern end to help keep the compass needle level -
As mentioned they tend to dip down to point directly at the
magnetic pole itself, which from where you may be is
typically 'underground‘
 In aircraft, there is a rule that applies to the magnetic
compass in the plane to make a correction for the weight
when accelerating/decelerating or turning
 The acronyms are SAND and ONUS
 SAND stands for South Accelerate North Decelerate. When
the plane accelerates on an easterly/westerly heading, the
compass will turn (without the plane turning) towards the
south, and vice-versa when decelerating
 ONUS stands for Overshoot North Undershoot South. When
using the magnetic compass to turn onto a northerly heading,
for example, you have to overshoot that northerly heading by
about 20° (depending on the rate of turn, actual final
heading, etc). The opposite for a southerly heading
 All of the above is quite surprising when you first see it, and it
takes a bit of practice to get it right.
 Fly on any heading and then commence a rate one turn. The relative movement of
the compass needle is in proportion to the rate of turn.
 If the bank is increased the relative movement of the compass needle bears no
relationship to the actual rate of turn and may even show a turn in the other
direction.
 This demonstrates the importance of turning at a low rate when using the magnetic
compass as a directional reference, especially at higher latitudes.
 If you fly on a southerly heading and start a turn left or right at rate one on to North
and roll out of the turn when the compass indicates exactly North; the compass
settles down on a heading that will be some 20 to 30 degrees from North.
 You need to roll out approximately 30 degrees past North then roll out; when the
compass has settled down it will be sufficiently near the selected heading to allow
it to be turned on to North by a small final correction.
 When turning on to South at a higher latitude it is necessary to stop the turn some
30 degrees before the compass indicates South.
 When turning on to East or West, it is possible to stop the turn when the compass
reads East or West and that little or no correction will be needed
• Deviation is a correction to be • Variation is a correction to be
applied to the Compass applied to the Magnetic
heading to obtain Magnetic heading to obtain True
heading heading

• Deviation West Compass Best • Variation West Magnetic Best

• Deviation East Compass Least • Variation East Magnetic Least


Pratt: nav4 &
nav15
 Why does the propeller blade angle (pitch angle)
vary along the propeller?
 To maintain a constant angle of attack along the
rotating propeller blade
 If an aircraft with a fixed pitch propeller
accelerates without moving the throttle, what
will be the effect (if any) on RPM?
 Engine RPM will increase
 If the propeller rotates clockwise as seen from
the cockpit (to the right), how will torque effect
act on the aircraft?
 The aircraft will try to roll anti-clockwise (to the
left)
 Should a pilot expect a propeller designed to
maximise take-off and climb performance to be
one more ‘fine’ or ‘coarse’ in pitch than one
designed to maximise cruise performance?
 For maximum slow speed performance a fine
pitch propeller is required
 Which aircraft instrument(s) measure static
pressure only?
 The Altimeter and Vertical Speed Indicator
 Which aircraft instruments measure both static and
pitot pressure?
 The Airspeed Indicator
 During a climb at 500 fpm, the static source
becomes blocked at 4000ft altitude. After a further
2 minutes of climb at the same rate, what will the
altimeter and vertical speed indicator read?
 The altimeter will read 4000’ and the VSI will read
Zero regardless of the climb rate or descent
 What pressure(s) are sampled by the Airspeed
Indicator?
 Static and Dynamic
 What is the significance of the Yellow Arc on the
Airspeed Indicator?
 It is the caution range; only in still air
 What is meant by Va Speed, and what is it’s
significance?
 Va is the manoeuvring airspeed, where maximum and
rapid control deflections can be made
 What airspeed limitation is represented by the upper
(faster) limit of the Green Arc on the Airspeed
Indicator?
 Vno – Maximum Normal Operating Speed
 What errors are taken into account when converting
IAS to CAS?
 Instrument and Position Error
 An aircraft at 10000’ has an indicated airspeed (IAS)
of 100 kts. The QNH is 1001mb/hPa, the Outside Air
Temperature (OAT) is +5° C. Without using a flight
computer, can the True Airspeed (TAS) be expected
to be less than, equal to, or more than IAS?
 More than
 During the climb the pitot source becomes blocked.
As the climb continues how will the ASI reading be
effected?
 The ASI will over read; indicating a false higher speed
 What are the two principle properties of a Gyro?
 Rigidity and Precession
 Name two ways of increasing Gyro rigidity?
 Increases its mass and speed of rotation
 Which instrument utilises a rate gyro?
 Turn coordinator
 Whilst taxiing before take-off, the aircraft is
turned to the left on a level piece of taxyway.
What indication would the pilot expect from a
properly functioning turn coordinator?
 Turn needle indicating left turn and the ball out
to the right
 Which of the following do not contain a gyro? Turn
Coordinator, Airspeed Indicator, Heading Indicator,
Compass, Attitude Indicator, Altimeter
 Airspeed Indicator, Compass, Altimeter
 What is apparent wander (apparent drift) and what
instrument does it effect?
 Heading Indicator “drifts” off heading due to rotation
of the earth and has to be regularly reset to the
Compass
 Excluding the external casing and window, what are
the principle components of the aircraft direct
reading compass?
 Series of magnets, compass rose, a magnet
assembly and fluid
 A compass deviation card corrects ……
heading for ………, resulting in a ……… heading.
(fill in the blanks)
 Compass, deviation, magnetic
 An aircraft turns the shortest way from 270° to
North in the northern hemisphere. As the
aircraft actually passes through magnetic North,
what reading would you expect on a properly
set HI and compass respectively?
 360° and 330°
 In the southern hemisphere an aircraft
accelerates whilst maintaining a constant
Westerly heading on the HI. How will the
Compass heading be affected?
 It will show an apparent turn to the South
 Now for the Questions…….
 What is the definition of a monocoque structure?
 A structure that carries most of the stresses on its
outside skin
 Aircraft A has a wingspan of 10m and a wing chord
of 1m; aircraft B has wing span of 15m and a chord
of 2m. Which has the greater aspect ratio?
 Aircraft A (aspect ratio of 10 versus 7.5)
 What is washout?
 Decrease in angle of incidence from root to tip
 Which type of boundary layer causes the most
drag?
 Turbulent
 What is the common name given to a design
arrangement where the tailplane is placed on top
of the fin?
 T-Tail
 Should a pilot be concerned by a slight wrinkling
in the metal or skin fabric seen during a pre-flight
inspection?
 YES!!
 What is the name given to a tab fitted to the rear
of the stabilator, which moves in the same
direction as the stabilator?
 Anti Balance tab
 What is the design purpose of the dorsal fin?
 Prevent stalling of the fin during slideslip
 What is the name given to the limiting speed for
lowering flaps or flying with them extended?
 Vfe
 What is the primary purpose of a control lock?
 Prevent damage to the flying controls
 To which sort of ground load is the undercarriage
most vulnerable?
 Side load or sideways force
 If the nosewheel is directly steered from the
rudder pedals, how are the two normally
connected?
 By cables or rods
 During a pre-flight inspection oil is found leaking
from the oleo seal. Is this acceptable?
 No
 What is the minimum tread depth over at least
75% of the tyre?
 2mm
 During a pre-flight inspection it is found that in
one spot the tyre has worn through to the cord
ply. Is this acceptable?
 No
 What is the acceptable level of tyre creep?
 No more than half the width of the creep mark
 What are the four stages of the “Otto” cycle?
 Induction, Compression, Power, Exhaust
 How many times does the intake valve open
during one complete four-stroke cycle?
 What is the name given to the volume in the
cylinder above the piston when it is at bottom
dead centre (BDC)?
 The total cylinder volume
 What is the name given to the ratio of total
cylinder volume to clearance volume?
 Compression Ratio
 What component, rotating at half the speed of
the crankshaft, controls the opening of the
intake and exhaust valves?
 The Camshaft
 What serious potential problem can be caused
by insufficient fuel tank venting in a gravity-feed
fuel system?
 Fuel starvation (Oil Canning)
 What is the colour of 100LL AVGAS fuel?
 Blue
 What is the possible consequence of using a
AVGAS grade of a lower octane rating than that
recommended?
 Detonation
 What is the primary purpose of the cockpit
‘mixture’ control?
 To control the ratio of fuel to air entering the
engine
 What is the primary purpose of the accelerator
pump?
 To prevent a ‘lean cut’ when the throttle is
opened rapidly
 At what throttle position is there the greatest
risk of carburettor icing (all other conditions
remaining unchanged)?
 Closed throttle (idling engine power)
 From where does the magneto derive the initial
power to provide the ignition system with a
spark?
 From rotation of its electro magnets, which are
driven by a linkage to engine rotation; not from
the aircraft’s not from the aircraft’s electrical
system
 A spark occurs later than a predetermined point
in the Otto cycle, how can the situation be
described?
 The spark can be said to be retarded
 If the primary circuit Of a magneto becomes
disconnected from the magneto switch, will
selection of both magnetos to ‘off’ earth both of
them?
 No
 If overheating inside a cylinder causes the
fuel/air mixture to burn earlier than usual, what
can this condition be called?
 Pre-ignition
 What is the main purpose of the baffles
within the engine compartment of an air
cooled engine?
 To direct airflow over the engine
 What would be the normal position of
adjustable cowl flaps during take-off and
landing?
 Open
 In a ‘wet-sump’ aero-engine, where is the oil
reservoir?
 The oil reservoir is the sump
 At what point is the temperature of the engine oil
measured?
 Before entering the hot sections of the engine
 At what point is the pressure of the engine oil
measured?
 Just downstream from the pump
 Immediately after major engine maintenance
work, what type of oil would a pilot expect to use?
 ‘straight’ mineral oil
 What can the oil level of a ‘wet sump’ system not
be checked immediately after the engine has
been stopped?
 The oil needs time (10 minutes) to drain back

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