AT _ G Jan 09
AT _ G Jan 09
Biplane
Monoplane
High wing
Mid wing
Low wing
Canard
Tricycle
Tail dragger
Wing Construction
Properties of a Wing:
• Light in weight.
• Adequate longitudinal stiffness.
• Adequate torsional stiffness.
STRESSES
Wing Construction
Main Components
Spar
Torsion Box
WING CONSTRUCTION
Honeycomb
Construction
Wing Construction
D-Spar Wing Construction
Monocoque Fuselage Construction
Girder Construction
Stressed Skin
Semi-
monocoque
Wing Design
20
50
2
50 / 2 = 25 (HIGH aspect ratio)
Low Aspect Ratio
Easy to build
Strong
Aerodynamically efficient at HIGH speeds
HIGH INDUCED DRAG (Up to 25% of total drag
in cruise)
If flying for range, ie below cruise speed, up to
50% of total drag
High Aspect Ratio
Constant Chord
Semi- Tapered
Tapered
Swept wings
WASHOUT
To induce stalling at the wing root
Airflow separation
Hydraulic Theory
F=PxA
Brake Pedal Pressure Higher Actuator Pressure
F=PxA
“Master “Slave
Cylinder” Cylinder”
Hydraulic Fluids
DTD 585
This is a widely used fluid that is coloured red, its
mineral based and therefore requires the system to be
fitted with synthetic rubber seals.
CASTOR or VEGETABLE
These, as the name suggests, are made from natural
compounds, thus require only rubber seals in the
system and are generally coloured yellow (If
colourless, they are dyed BLUE).
SKYDROL
Another popular fluid that is coloured purple, and due
to its ingredients requires the system to have butyl
rubber seals.
Typical
Hydraulic
System
Non-Return Valve (NRV)
Hydraulic Disc Brake System
Hydraulic Disc Brake System
Landing Gear
Stroke
TDC Stroke
BDC
Definitions
Clearance Total Swept
Volume Volume Volume
Definitions
Compression Ratio
Total Volume
=
Clearance
Volume
1 300 + 200
=
200
1 500
=
200
Cycle X
Ignition
ion
s s
Ind
e
pr s t Exhaust
u
om u
Pow
a Valve
ctio
C x h Closed
E
n
er
Inlet
Exhaust Valve
Valve Closed
Open BDC
4 Stroke Cycle
Timing Open
Ind
INDUCTION
u
ctio
•Inlet valve opens
n
before TDC
Valve Lead
•Inlet valve closes
after BDC
Valve Lag
BDC
Practical Inlet
Valve
TDC
Timing Open
Cycle o n
iti
n
X
Ind
Ig Timing Advance
u
ctio
COMPRESSION
n
•Ignition takes place
Compression
before TDC
Timing Advance
Inlet
Valve
Closed
BDC
Practical Inlet
Valve
TDC
Timing Open
Cycle o n
iti
n
X
Ind
Ig
POWER
u
Pow
ctio
•Ignition takes
n
e
place Compression
r
before TDC
Timing Advance
•Exhaust valve Valve Lead
opens
before BDC
Valve Lead Inlet Exhaust
Valve Valve
Closed Open
BDC
Practical Inlet
Valve
TDC
Timing Open
Cycle o n
Valve
Overlap
iti
n
X
Ind
COMPRESSION Ig
s t
u
u
Pow
a
ctio
•Exhaust valve h
E x Exhaust
closes after TDC
n
e
Valve
Compression
r
Valve Lag Closed
Valve Overlap
Inlet Exhaust
Valve Valve
Closed Open
BDC
Radial Engine
Types of IC Engines
The Pilot has the greatest control over
the fuel and induction system. It is
thus not surprising that
mismanagement thereof causes the
vast majority of engine failures and
accidents!
Fuel System
Wing Tank Construction
Types of Tanks
Is of vital importance
If the tank is only open at 1 side, suction at
the low pressure side inside the tank can
stop flow.
This is called OIL- CANNING
The tank will have a tube to the outside or a
vent in the fuel cap
The Fuel Drain
Vent
Fuel Selectors
1. Enrich Mixture
NOTE:
Detonation usually occurs in all cylinders as
it is a result of fuel-air mixture, temperature
and pressure, whereas Pre-ignition can exist in
one cylinder due to its condition (being too hot
or having carbon deposits)
Check the fuel contents before every
flight
Light aircraft do not always have reliable
fuel contents gauges – be warned
Once airborne, monitor your fuel usage –
does actual consumption match the
planned consumption?
Remember that NOT ALL FUEL IS
USABLE! Refer to the book
Always respect the need for fuel reserves
Induction System
Carburettor Icing
Fuel Injection
Serviceability Checks and Handling
Revision
Principle of Carburetion
Principle of Operation: Carburetion & Fuel Mixture
CARBURETTOR
Acceleration cam
Throttle Butterfly
Upper Piston
(Air valve)
Balance duct
Slow running
jet
Fuel
Inlet
Float chamber
Needle
Valve
Main Jet
Float
Venturi
Fuel
Diffuser
Carburettor Icing
Carburetion & Fuel Injection
OAT 10-30°
Carburettor Icing Low Power
High Speed
Fuel
Discharge Fuel FF
Nozzles Injectors
Fuel
Air Intake NRV
Manifold Booster Pump
Fuel Return
Fuel Control Fuel
Assembly Control Unit
Internal Combustion Engine
The ignition system provides the spark that
ignites the fuel are mixture within the cylinder
The electrical current required is generated by a
magneto
A magneto contains a magnet which rotates
between two coils
Once the engine is running you can disconnect
the battery and the electrical system and “throw
them away”; the engine will keep running
Consists of a small magnet rotating
between two coils.
The primary coil is connected to the
ignition switch.
Turned by mechanical linkage to the
crankshaft.
Secondary coil is connected to the
distributor.
Fluxing magnet produces a flow of
electric current in primary coil.
If breaker points open, flow stops and the
magnetic field surrounding the primary
coil collapses inducing a very high
voltage the secondary coil.
This electric current travels to the
distributor.
From there it is directed along HIGH
TENSION LEADS (IGNITION HARNASS)
TO THE SPARK PLUGS IN THE CORRECT
FIRING ORDER.
There are 2 separate spark plugs in each
cylinder.
Each will be connected to 1 of the two
magnetos.
Back-up system if 1 magneto fails.
For starting one magneto may be fitted
with impulse coupling.
For starting a more powerful spark will be
generated and will be “later” ie retarded.
To aid starting, a magneto may be fitted with an
‘impulse coupling’
When the engine is turning over slowly (such as
when the starter is operated), a spring loaded
coupling in one magneto (usually the left)
operates to provide a spark at the spark plugs
which is more powerful than usual and also
retarded
Once the engine is running, the impulse
coupling disengages
Occurs when early burning off incoming
air/fuel mixture takes place.
Caused by “Hotspots” or excess heat in
the cylinder.
Electricity supply
V = Potential Difference measured in
VOLTS
I = Current flowing measured in AMPERE
R = Resistance measured in OHM’s
V=IxR
Electricity storage device
Lead /Acid (Sulphuric acid)
Rated in Voltage and Amp Hrs
ie 30 Amp hrs = 15Amp for 2 hrs
30 Amp for 1hrs
10 Amp for 3hrs
Normally 12 or 24 Volts DC
Lead Acid Batteries
Electricity supply
Circuit protection devices
Any device that produces electrical current
by creating an ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD
between magnets
Engine driven
DIRECT CURRENT
Mostly on large a/c. Disadvantage weight
& size, low RPM - not very efficient
Changes DC to AC COMMUTATOR
Reverse flow prevented by a REVERSE
FLOW CUT-OUT RELAY
Smaller, more current than generators at
lower RPM
Main drawback – ALTERNATING CURRENT
AC not used on A/C
AC changed to DC by a RECTIFIER
DIODE prevents reverse flow into the
alternator
Needs battery power for EXCITATION
Not self-contained
Alternating Current
( AC ).
Load.
Current In Amps.
2
Zero Value.
0
-2
-5
Alternator.
-8
5
Max Positive Value.
Current In Amps.
2
0
-2
Alternator.
-8
Second.
90º
360º
0º 180º
270º
• Fluid
• Mechanical
• Thermal
• Electrical
• Aerofoils.
• Propellers.
• Engine intakes.
• Windscreens.
• Pitot and static heads
Types of Ice Removal
Cooling
EFFICIENCY
30% Converted into mechanical energy.
40% Passed through exhaust system.
30% Absorbed into engine.
Overheating.
Breakdown of lubrication.
Engine failure.
Cooling
PURPOSE
Liquid cooling
Air cooling
Cylinder Block
Pump
Radiator
Oil pressure is normally measured just after
(downstream of) the oil pump
Oil temperature is also measured before the oil
enters the ‘hot sections’ of the engine, often just
after the oil has passed through the oil cooler
Low oil pressure and high oil temperature are
the signs of serious engine problems, divert
immediately to nearest airfield
Dry Sump System
Wet Sump System
Dipstick
Oil Press
sender
Filter
Oil Press
Regulating
valve
Cooler Pressure
pump
Principles of Propellers
The Fixed Pitch Propeller
The Variable Pitch Propeller
Constant Speed Unit
Handling and Serviceability Checks
Revision
Propeller Theory
The propeller transforms torque from the engine
into thrust. It is a rotating aerofoil that produces
lift in a forward direction
Blade Angle
Forces on Blade Element
Forces on Blade Element
Effect of Speed on Propeller
Efficiency
Effect of Speed on
Propeller Efficiency
Effect of Speed on
Propeller Efficiency
Propeller Efficiency
Propeller Efficiency
Blade Positions
Windmilling Propeller
Swing on Take-Off
• Torque reaction
• Slipstream effect
• Gyroscopic effect
• Asymmetric blade effect
Slip is the difference
Propeller Theory between the two.
Slip
Effective Pitch
Geometric Pitch
We need to
be able too
counter this
NO CSU at
this stage!
Oil drain
Pivot
Spinning weights
Constant Speed Unit (CSU)
Underspeed
Static Port
Pitot Tube
Instrument Overview
It is important to understand which instruments are going to be
discussed and where they obtain their information from. We are
going to look at Pitot – Static Instruments and Gyroscopic
Instruments in this syllabus.
Pitot – Static Instruments :
Airspeed Indicator ( ASI ) : supplied by Pitot and Static.
Altimeter : supplied by Static only.
Vertical Speed Indicator ( VSI ) : supplied by Static only.
Gyroscopic Instruments :
Artificial Horizon ( AH ) : supplied by the Vacuum pump
only.
Directional Gyro Indicator ( DGI ) : supplied by the Vacuum
pump only.
Turn And Slip Indicator : supplied by the Electrical system
for the Turn and Gravity for the Slip.
Gyroscopic Instruments
Pitot Tube
The basic Pitot probe is mounted where it will not be affected by the disturbed airflow
caused by the structure of the aircraft.
These errors are not completely removed and are called pressure and position errors.
These errors are corrected during the flight testing.
Manoeuvre Induced errors also exist at the Pitot probe and Static ports. These errors
are caused when the aircraft’s angle of attack changes and can last for several
seconds.
The Pitot probe measures the air pressure caused by the forward movement of the
aircraft also referred to as total pressure or ram air pressure.
The faster the aircraft is moving the higher the air pressure in the Pitot tube,
therefore the pressure inside the Pitot tube is directly proportional to airspeed.
The Pitot probe is also able to measure static pressure. Both Pitot and Static pressure
are used to supply the Airspeed Indicator or ASI. We can now use the formula :
The Pitot probe is electrically heated to prevent ice accumulation and has drain holes
at the bottom of the tube to prevent water accumulation.
Pitot Tube
Pitot
Pressure
Direction Of Air Flow
Static
Pressure
Static Static
Vent Vent
Two vents are used to equalise any pressures caused by the yaw of the
aircraft.
It must be noted that when using this emergency static vent the
pressure sensed in the flight deck is normally lower than ambient static
pressure by approximately 10 Mb.
Static Port or Vent
Pitot Static Instruments
Pressure Altimeter Introduction
The Pressure Altimeter is basically an Aneroid Barometer.
An Aneroid Barometer is used to measure the ambient Atmospheric
pressure or Static pressure.
This pressure measurement is then used to display aircraft altitude.
The Altimeter is calibrated for ISA conditions.
Pressure Altimeter
The following is a summary of the operation of the Pressure Altimeter
The Pressure Altimeter measures the ambient Atmospheric pressure or Static
pressure.
The Static pressure is measured by the Static port or vent and is fed into the
airtight case of the instrument.
The Pressure Altimeter has a partially evacuated capsule supported by a leaf
spring inside the case.
As the aircraft climbs the Static pressure decreases and the capsule will
expand.
This expansion is transmitted through the linkages to indicate an increase in
altitude.
As the aircraft descends the Static pressure will increase causing the capsule
to contract.
This contraction is transmitted through the linkages to indicate a decrease in
altitude.
A Bi- Metallic strip is incorporated into the suitable linkages to compensate for
the expansion or contraction of the linkages with temperature changes.
Pressure Altimeter Construction
Sealed Case
Static Vent
Altimeter Scale
Capsule
Linkages
Baro Correction
Static pressure is measured at the Static port.
As the aircraft climbs the Static pressure decreases and the capsule expands.
This expansion shows an increase in altitude.
As the aircraft descends the Static pressure increases and the capsule will contract.
This contraction shows a decrease in altitude.
The Baro correction is used to compensate for any deviation in ISA conditions.
Altimeter Errors
Instrument Error :
These errors are caused by imperfections during manufacture and wear and tear
of the instrument.
There is another consideration, and that is the rate of pressure change of the
atmosphere with an increase in altitude is assumed to be constant.
As this assumption is not true the altimeter will be unreliable at higher altitudes.
It may take time for pressure changes at the Static vent to register on the
altimeter.
This is mainly due to the mechanical properties of the instrument.
During a rapid climb the Altimeter lags and therefore under reads.
During a rapid descent the Altimeter lags and therefore over reads.
Pressure Altimeter
Barometric Error :
The Altimeter is calibrated according to ISA conditions for atmospheric pressure.
If there is a deviation from the ISA pressure conditions an error will occur in the
Altimeter indications.
The pressure error can be corrected for by means of the barometric correction
scale.
Temperature Error :
The Altimeter is calibrated according to ISA conditions for atmospheric
temperature.
If there is a deviation from the ISA temperature conditions an error will occur in
the Altimeter.
The error is small at lower altitudes but significant at higher altitudes.
This error can be corrected by the altitude window on a navigation computer.
Altitude and Pressure Relationship
As the aircraft flies from a high pressure area to a low pressure area the atmosphere
becomes less dense.
The Altimeter capsules sense this drop in pressure.
As the pressure drops the Altimeter capsules start to expand.
The expansion of the capsules is indicated as an increase in altitude.
The pilot tries to maintain his assigned altitude and thus starts to descend the
aircraft.
The aircraft is thus moving closer to the ground for a constant assigned or
maintained altitude.
The altimeter over reads.
Altitude and Pressure Relationship
As the aircraft flies from a high pressure area to a low pressure area the atmosphere
becomes less dense.
The Altimeter capsules sense this drop in pressure.
As the pressure drops the Altimeter capsules start to expand.
The expansion of the capsules is indicated as an increase in altitude.
Go!
The aircraft is thus moving closer to the ground for a constant assigned or
maintained altitude.
The altimeter over reads.
Altitude and Temp Relationship
The aircraft flies from a high temperature area to a low temperature area at a
constant Pressure.
One must remember the QNH setting on the altimeter is a function of pressure at the
aircraft reduced to sea level by means of a formula 1 Mb per 30 Feet assuming ISA
pressure gradient.
In warm air, because of its lower density, the aircraft will have to be higher to obtain
the same pressure difference in Mb from sea level. The altimeter under reads.
In cold air, because of its high density the displacement of the aircraft for the same
Mb change will be less and the aircraft will be lower to the ground. The altimeter is
over reading.
Altitude and Temp Relationship
The aircraft flies from a high temperature area to a low temperature area at a
constant Pressure.
One must remember the QNH setting on the altimeter is a function of pressure at the
aircraft reduced to sea level by means of a formula 1 Mb per 30 Feet assuming ISA
pressure gradient.
In warm air, because of its lower density, the aircraft will have to be higher to obtain
Bold
Mb change will be less and the aircraft will be lower to the ground. The altimeter is
over reading.
The Q-Codes
Airfield Pressure
860 Mb
Airfield Elevation
5010 Feet
ISA Reference
1013.25 Mb
QNH is 1027 Mb
Mean Sea Level
Altimeter Calculation
An aircraft leaves airfield Y, airfield pressure 960 Mb, and the altimeter reads airfield
elevation of 1860 Feet. The aircraft lands at airfield Z, elevation 1000 Feet, where the
altimeter reads 1270 Feet. What is the QNH at Z?
Y
Z
1860 Feet
1000 Feet
QFE 960 Mb 62 Mb
Change
QNH 1013 Mb
QNH 1022 Mb
Sea Level
Pitot Static Instruments
Airspeed Indicator Construction
Sealed Case
Capsule
Pitot Tube
Static Vent
Linkages
Airspeed Indicator Construction
Sealed Case
Low 0 High
Airspeed Indicator
Vso
Vne Stall speed in the
Velocity never landing config
exceeded
Vs1
Yellow Arc Stall speed
Cautionary speed clean
band. In still air
only
White Arc
Vno Flap operating
Maximum normal band
operating speed
Vfe
Green Arc Maximum
Normal operating flap extended
speed band speed
Vx - Best ANGLE of climb speed
Vy – Best RATE of climb speed
Vfe – Maximum speed with flap extended
Vfo – Maximum flap operating speed
Vle – Maximum speed with landing gear
extended
Vlo – Maximum speed for landing gear
operation
Va – Maximum manoeuvering speed
Vne – Never exceed speed
Vno – Normal operating speed
Vs – Stalling speed
Vso – Stalling speed in the landing
configuration
Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)
The following is a summary of the operation of the Vertical Speed Indicator ( VSI )
The Vertical Speed Indicator uses the principal of pressure differential to measure and indicate a
rate of climb or descent.
A capsule in an airtight case is supplied with Static Pressure from the Static vent.
As the aircraft climb or descends the changing Static Pressure is fed directly into the capsule.
The Static Pressure from the Static vent is also fed into the airtight case through a metering unit
or a choke.
The Static Pressure is delayed by the choke and thus arrives in the case a few seconds later than
the capsule.
This delay in Static Pressure causes a difference in pressure between the capsule and the case.
This differential pressure causes the capsule to expand or contract depending on whether the
aircraft is climbing or descending.
This expansion is transmitted through linkages to the indicator.
The indicator will show a rate of climb or descent in feet per minute.
In straight and level flight there is no differential and thus a zero indication.
Pitot Static Instruments
Vertical Speed Indicator
Construction
Sealed Case
Capsule
Choke
Static Vent
Linkages
Vertical Speed Indicator
Principle of Operation
Choke
“Wher
eI Static
was”
“Wher
Static eI
am” Lower = Climbing
Higher =
Descending
Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)
VSI
Pointer
Logarithmic
Scale
VSI
Adjustment
Instantaneous VSI
Accelerometer
Sealed Case Added
Capsule
Choke
Static Vent
Linkages
Gyroscopic Instruments
Gyroscopic Instruments :
Engine Driven
Vacuum Pump
DGI
Air Filter
Vacuum Gauge
Gyroscopic Instruments
Types of Gyros
Roll Scale
Angle of Bank
Indicator
Aircraft Symbol
Horizon
Pitch Scale
Pitch Correction
Artificial Horizon (AH)
Fixed Point
In Space
As the aircraft starts to pitch down the case, outer Gimbal and instrument
panel pitch down.
The vertical axis Gyroscope maintains its rigid position in space.
This rigidity causes a movement between the inner and outer Gimbal.
This movement causes the horizon bar to move and the sky plate to move.
The movement of the sky plate shows the pilot pitch attitude.
Artificial Horizon: Roll Indication
Fixed Point
In Space
As the aircraft starts to roll the vertical axis Gyroscope maintains its rigidity in space.
The aircraft, the aircraft symbol and the roll index move around the vertical axis Gyroscope.
The movement between the aircraft and the Gimbal assembly indicates roll information to the
pilot.
Gyroscopic Instruments
Directional Gyroscope (DGI)
Sealed Case
Air Driven
Horizontal Axis
Rotor
Inner Gimbal
Outer Gimbal
Gimbal Assembly
Able to Rotate on
Bearing Pivot
Gear Train
Direction Card
Directional Gyroscope: Errors
Real and Apparent “Wander”
Real wander is as a result of mechanical “wear and
tear”; heading will slowly wander away. Use compass
to reset
Apparent wander is caused by the rotation of the earth
and the movement of the aircraft. Gyro rigid in space
and not to a point on the surface of the earth. HI seems
to indicate heading change. Dependent on latitude and
can be adjusted
Transport Wander
As the aircraft moves over longer distances a
correction will have to be made
Check the DI against the Compass
Gyroscopic Instruments
Turn and Slip Indicator
Uses a Rate Dyro to measure rate of turn
Axis of the Gyro is horizontal and a spring is
attached to the axis
Yawing precesses into pitch which causes the
gyro to tilt and and the needle attached to the
gimbal measures this as rate of turn
Rate One turn is 3° per second or 180° in one
minute or 360° in two minutes
As a rule of thumb, to find angle of bank
necessary for rate one turn is to divide the TAS
by 10 and add 7. Thus turn at 100 kts requires
17° angle of bank (10 + 7)
Turn indicator does NOT measure angle of bank,
only the rate of change in direction
Turn and Slip Indicator
Rate One Turn
Reference Markers
Rate Of Turn
Pointer
Rate Gyroscope
Electrical Failure Flag
Force of Gravity
Turn and Slip Indicator
Balanced Turn
Centrifugal
Force
Resultant Force
Force of Gravity
Turn and Slip Indicator
Slip – Excessive
Bank
Centrifugal
Force
Resultant Force
Force of Gravity
Turn and Slip Indicator
Skid – Insufficient
Bank
Centrifugal
Force
Resultant Force
Force of Gravity
Used for thousands of years
Variation
Deviation
Dip
Error caused by Dip greatest on North/South headings
and zero on West/East headings
ONUS (Overshoot North – Undershoot South)
Acceleration Errors
Greatest on Easterly and Westerly headings and least
on North/South headings; (SAND)
Deceleration causes an apparent turn to the North and
acceleration an apparent turn to the South
In both hemispheres :
ACCELERATION = Apparent turn to
CLOSEST pole
DECELLERATION = Apparent turn to the
equator
Compasses in the southern hemisphere have a small weight
on their northern end to help keep the compass needle level -
As mentioned they tend to dip down to point directly at the
magnetic pole itself, which from where you may be is
typically 'underground‘
In aircraft, there is a rule that applies to the magnetic
compass in the plane to make a correction for the weight
when accelerating/decelerating or turning
The acronyms are SAND and ONUS
SAND stands for South Accelerate North Decelerate. When
the plane accelerates on an easterly/westerly heading, the
compass will turn (without the plane turning) towards the
south, and vice-versa when decelerating
ONUS stands for Overshoot North Undershoot South. When
using the magnetic compass to turn onto a northerly heading,
for example, you have to overshoot that northerly heading by
about 20° (depending on the rate of turn, actual final
heading, etc). The opposite for a southerly heading
All of the above is quite surprising when you first see it, and it
takes a bit of practice to get it right.
Fly on any heading and then commence a rate one turn. The relative movement of
the compass needle is in proportion to the rate of turn.
If the bank is increased the relative movement of the compass needle bears no
relationship to the actual rate of turn and may even show a turn in the other
direction.
This demonstrates the importance of turning at a low rate when using the magnetic
compass as a directional reference, especially at higher latitudes.
If you fly on a southerly heading and start a turn left or right at rate one on to North
and roll out of the turn when the compass indicates exactly North; the compass
settles down on a heading that will be some 20 to 30 degrees from North.
You need to roll out approximately 30 degrees past North then roll out; when the
compass has settled down it will be sufficiently near the selected heading to allow
it to be turned on to North by a small final correction.
When turning on to South at a higher latitude it is necessary to stop the turn some
30 degrees before the compass indicates South.
When turning on to East or West, it is possible to stop the turn when the compass
reads East or West and that little or no correction will be needed
• Deviation is a correction to be • Variation is a correction to be
applied to the Compass applied to the Magnetic
heading to obtain Magnetic heading to obtain True
heading heading