History of Periodic Table

During the nineteenth century,

chemists began to categorize
the elements according to
similarities in their physical and
chemical properties. The end
result of these studies was our
modern periodic table.
Johann Wolfgang
Dobereiner
In 1829, He noticed that
certain elements in groups
of 3 had similar physical &
chemical properties with the
atomic weight of the middle
element being halfway
between the other two. He
called such a group of
elements a triads.
Model of triads
 John Alexander Reina
Newlands
In 1863, he suggested that elements be
arranged in “octaves” because he noticed
(after arranging the elements in order of
increasing atomic mass) that certain
properties repeated every 8th element.

Law of Octaves
1838 - 1898
John Alexander Reina
Newlands
He arranged the elements in
order of increasing atomic
weight.
Every 8th known element
had similar physical &
chemical properties.
 John Alexander Reina
Newlands
The problem is that after Calcium the pattern starts to break
down.

Although Newland had the right idea, some of the elements

hadn’t been discovered yet
 Dmitri Mendeleev
In 1869 he published a table
of the elements organized by
increasing atomic mass.

1834 - 1907
 Lothar Meyer
At the same time, he published his
own table of the elements organized
by increasing atomic mass.

1830 - 1895
• Both Mendeleev and Meyer arranged
the elements in order of increasing
atomic mass.
• Both left vacant spaces where
unknown elements should fit.

So why is Mendeleev called the

“father of the modern periodic
table” and not Meyer, or both?
Mendeleev...
• stated that if the atomic weight of an
element caused it to be placed in the
wrong group, then the weight must
be wrong. (He corrected the
atomic masses of Be, In, and U)
• was so confident in his table that he
used it to predict the physical
properties of three elements that
were yet unknown.
After the discovery of these unknown
elements between 1874 and 1885,
and the fact that Mendeleev’s
predictions for Sc, Ga, and Ge were
amazingly close to the actual values,
his table was generally accepted.
However, in spite of Mendeleev’s great
achievement, problems arose when
new elements were discovered and
more accurate atomic weights
determined.
 Henry Moseley
In 1913, through his work with X-rays,
he determined the actual nuclear
charge (atomic number) of the
elements*. He rearranged the
elements in order of increasing
atomic number.
*“There is in the atom a fundamental
quantity which increases by regular
steps as we pass from each element to
the next. This quantity can only be the
charge on the central positive nucleus.”

1887 - 1915
 Henry Moseley
His research was halted when the British
government sent him to serve as a foot
soldier in WWI. He was killed in the
fighting in Gallipoli by a sniper’s bullet,
at the age of 28. Because of this loss,
the British government later restricted its
scientists to noncombatant duties during
WWII.
REMEMBER! REMEMBER!
REMEMBER!
MODERN PERIODIC
TABLE
• An arrangement of the elements in
order of increasing atomic number.
This arrangement illustrates similar
electronic configuration and trends
in physical and chemical
properties.
 Groups and Blocks
– Group A elements are called representative
elements
– Group B elements are called transition
elements.

Based upon the electron configuration of the

elements the table can be divided into four
blocks. These blocks represent the different
sublevels of electron configuration.
The s and p block elements
are called
REPRESENTATIVE
ELEMENTS or Main Group
Elements

Group IA-VIIIA or Group 1,2

and 13-18
 The d block elements
are called
TRANSITION ELEMENTS.

Group IB – VIIIB or Group 3-12

 Groups and Blocks
• The s-block elements:
– Groups 1-2
– Electron configuration: ns1,2 (valence electrons in the s
subshell)
• The d-block elements:
– Groups 3-12
– Electron configuration: (n-1)d1-10ns0-2 (valence electrons
in the p subshell)
– transition elements: typical metallic properties
– Good Conductors of electricity and have a high luster;
less reactive than the s-block elements; many exist in
nature as free elements.
 Groups and Blocks
• The p-block elements:
– Groups 13-18
– Electron configuration: ns2np1-6 (valence
electrons in d subshells progressively filled
only after their next s subshell is filled)
– Combine with s-block elements to become the
main-group elements
 Groups and Blocks
• The f-block elements:
– Lanthanides and Actinides
– Between Groups 3 and 4.
– Between Periods 6 and 7.
– 14 in each; highly similar properties; resemble
Group 2 elements.
– f subshells progressively filled
 Properties of Metals

• Metals are good conductors of

heat and electricity.
• Metals are shiny.
• Metals are ductile (can be
stretched into thin wires).
• Metals are malleable (can be
pounded into thin sheets).
• A chemical property of metal is
its reaction with water which
results in corrosion.
Properties of Non-Metals

• Non-metals are poor

conductors of heat and
electricity.
• Non-metals are not
ductile or malleable.
• Solid non-metals are
brittle and break easily.
• They are dull.
• Many non-metals are
gases.

Sulfur
 Properties of Metalloids

• Metalloids (metal-like) have

properties of both metals and
non-metals.
• They are solids that can be
shiny or dull.
• They conduct heat and
electricity better than non-
metals but not as well as
metals.
• They are ductile and
malleable.

Silicon
The horizontal rows of the periodic table
identified by Arabic numerals 1-7 are called
PERIODS or SERIES.
The elements in any group
of the periodic table have
similar physical and
chemical properties!

The vertical columns of the periodic table

identified by Roman numerals I, II, III and
so on accompanied by letters A or B are
called GROUPS, or FAMILIES.
The International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)
recommended Arabic Numerals 1-18
for column.
 Families Periods
• Columns of elements are called • Each horizontal row of
groups or families. elements is called a period.
• Elements in each family have • The elements in a period are
similar but not identical not alike in properties.
properties. • In fact, the properties change
• For example, lithium (Li), greatly across even given row.
sodium (Na), potassium (K), and
• The first element in a period
other members of family IA are
is always an extremely active
all soft, white, shiny metals.
solid. The last element in a
• All elements in a family have the period, is always an inactive
same number of valence gas.
electrons.
 Hydrogen

• The hydrogen square sits atop Family AI, but

it is not a member of that family. Hydrogen is
in a class of its own.
• It’s a gas at room temperature.
• It has one proton and one electron in its one
and only energy level.
• Hydrogen only needs 2 electrons to fill up its
valence shell.
Alkali Metals
 Alkali Metals
• The alkali family is found in the
first column of the periodic
table.

• They are shiny, have the

consistency of clay, and are
easily cut with a knife.

• They are all extremely reactive

and have to be stored in oil to
prevent them from reacting
with the oxygen in the air.
Alkali Metals

• They are the most

reactive metals.
• They react violently
with water.
• Alkali metals are
never found as free
elements in nature.
They are always
bonded with another
element.
What does it mean to be reactive?
• We will be describing elements according to their
reactivity.
• Elements that are reactive bond easily with other elements
to make compounds.
• Some elements are only found in nature bonded with other
elements.
• What makes an element reactive?
– An incomplete valence electron level.
– All atoms (except hydrogen) want to have 8 electrons in their very
outermost energy level (This is called the rule of octet.)
– Atoms bond until this level is complete. Atoms with few valence
electrons lose them during bonding. Atoms with 6, 7, or 8 valence
electrons gain electrons during bonding.
Alkaline Earth Metals
 Alkaline Earth Metals
• They are never found uncombined in nature.
• They have two valence electrons.
• Alkaline earth metals include magnesium and
calcium, among others.
Transition Metals
 Transition Metals

• Transition Elements
include those elements in
the B families.
• These are the metals you
are probably most
familiar: copper, tin, zinc,
iron, nickel, gold, and
silver.
• They are good conductors
of heat and electricity.
 Transition Metals

• The compounds of transition metals are usually brightly

colored and are often used to color paints.
• Transition elements have 1 or 2 valence electrons, which
they lose when they form bonds with other atoms. Some
transition elements can lose electrons in their next-to-
outermost level.
 Boron Family

• The Boron Family is named

after the first element in the
family.
• Atoms in this family have 3
valence electrons.
• This family includes a
metalloid (boron), and the rest
are metals.
• This family includes the most
abundant metal in the earth’s
crust (aluminum).
 Carbon Family

• Atoms of this family have 4

valence electrons.
• This family includes a non-
metal (carbon), metalloids, and
metals.
• The element carbon is called the
“basis of life.” There is an entire
branch of chemistry devoted to
carbon compounds called
organic chemistry.
 Nitrogen Family
• The nitrogen family is named
after the element that makes up
78% of our atmosphere.
• This family includes non-metals,
metalloids, and metals.
• Atoms in the nitrogen family
have 5 valence electrons. They
tend to share electrons when they
bond.
• Other elements in this family are
phosphorus, arsenic, antimony,
and bismuth.
 Oxygen Family

• Atoms of this family have 6

valence electrons.
• Most elements in this family
share electrons when forming
compounds.
• Oxygen is the most abundant
element in the earth’s crust. It
is extremely active and
combines with almost all
elements.
Halogens
 Halogen Family
• The elements in this
family are fluorine,
chlorine, bromine, iodine,
and astatine.
• Halogens have 7 valence
electrons, which explains
why they are the most
active non-metals. They
are never found free in
nature.
• They react with alkali
metals to form salts.
Noble Gases
 Noble Gases

• Noble Gases are colorless gases that are extremely un-

reactive.
• One important property of the noble gases is their inactivity.
They are inactive because their outermost energy level is full.
• Because they do not readily combine with other elements to
form compounds, the noble gases are called inert.
• The family of noble gases includes helium, neon, argon,
krypton, xenon, and radon.
• All the noble gases are found in small amounts in the earth's
atmosphere.
 These elements are also
called the rare-earth
elements.

InnerTransition Metals
 Transition Elements
• Transition elements have properties similar
to one another and to other metals, but their
properties do not fit in with those of any
other family.
• Many transition metals combine chemically
with oxygen to form compounds called
oxides.
Rare Earth Elements

• The thirty rare earth

elements are composed
of the lanthanide and
actinide series.
• One element of the
lanthanide series and
most of the elements in
the actinide series are
called trans-uranium,
which means synthetic
or man-made.
The periodic table is the most important
tool in the chemist’s toolbox!