ELX 218 -

Electronics

Introduction to Digital
Electronics
 • Digital Electronics represents
information with only two discrete
Introduction •
values (0, 1) .
Ideally
to Digital “no voltage” (e.g.,
0V/GND) represents a 0 and

Electronics “full source voltage” (e.g.,

5V) represents a 1
• Realistically
“low voltage” (e.g., <1v)
represents a 0 and
“high voltage” (e.g., >4v)
represents a 1
• We achieve these discrete values by
using switches.
• We use transistor switches, which
operates at high speed,
electronically, a small in size.

2
 Bridging the Digital Device
1623 ANALOG TO DIGITAL
3 21 935 3 16 63
6 935272
CONVERSION
534 7 75 935 93 5
275
1 534
23412 37
45 1 13
7 2
145
34

0
1 1 01 00
0 0
100111
0 01
0
1 010
0100
1
01
1101
010 101 10 0
0010
1 1001 10
0
1 1 10
01 00
111
0010
1101 0 010 011 101
1 011011
011 11 0010110010
DIGITAL TO ANALOG 0 011
CONVERSION 011 01
1 0 1
01 0 1 10 1
0 1 1
1
10 0001 10
0
1 00 1 0
0 1 01 1
0 1 01 10 11 01011
1 1011 00 0
00 1 00
3
 Decimal Number

Numbering
- denary counting system
• - Base-10 numbering system
• -ten possible values from 0 to 9
•

System
(10 counting sequences)

Binary Number

• - duo counting system

• - Base-2 numbering system
• -two possible values 0 and 1
• (2 counting sequences)

Octal Number

• - Base-8 numbering system

• -eight possible values from 0 to 7
• (8 counting sequences)

Hexadecimal Number

• - Base-16 numbering system

• -sixteen possible values from 0 to 15 (16
counting sequences)
• - 0- 9, A,B,C,D,E,F

4
 Decimal Conversion
Decimal

Binary Hexadecimal
Octal

Technique
- Divide by base, keep track of the remainder
- Bottom top answer

5
 Example
12510 = ?2 2 125
62 1
2
2 31 0
15 1
2
7 1
2
2 3 1

2 1 1
0 1

12510 = 11111012

6
 Example
123410 = ?8

8 1234
154 2
8
19 2
8
2 3
8
0 2

123410 = 23228

7
 Example
123410 = ?16

16 1234
16 77 2

16 4 13 = D
0 4

123410 = 4D216

8
 Binary Conversion
Binary

1
2 3

Decimal Hexadecimal
Octal

9
 • Technique 1
Sum of Power of 2 ^N-1

Binary • Technique 2

Conversion Group in 3 bit starting from the most

right (LSB)

• Technique 3
Group in 4 bit starting from the most
right (LSB)
 Example
10110101112 = ?10

11
 Example
10110101112 = ?8

1 011 010 111

1 3 2 7

10110101112 = 13278

12
 Example
10110101112 = ?16

10 1101 0111

2 13 7

10110101112 = 1D716

13
 Fractions
• Binary to decimal
10.1011 => 1 x 2-4 = 0.0625
1 x 2-3 = 0.125
0 x 2-2 = 0.0
1 x 2-1 = 0.5
0 x 20 = 0.0
1 x 21 = 2.0
2.6875

14
 Fractions
• Decimal to binary x
.14579
2
3.14579 0.29158
x 2
0.58316
x 2
1.16632
x 2
0.33264
x 2
0.66528
x 2
1.33056
11.001001... etc.

15
 Logic Gate
• A Logic Gate is an electronic circuit capable of making logical
decisions.
• A basic building of a digital system
• It has one output and one or more inputs.
• 0 and 1.
• Divided into 2 groups:
1. Fundamental Gates  to perform basic mathematical operation ( x, +,
invert)
2. Derived Gates  to perform more complicated logic operation
 The OR Gate Y=A+B

“The output is high when

one or ore inputs are
high.”
Implementation of OR gate
Three-input
OR Gate
 The AND Gate
The output is high when all the inputs are
high.
 “Y equals A AND B.”

Implementation of AND gate.

Three-input AND Gate
 The NOT Gate
• Y=Ᾱ
• Y equals NOT A.
• Y equals inverse of A.
• Y equals complement of A.
Summary
The NOR
Gate
Truth Table of NOR Gate
The output is HIGH only
when all the inputs are LOW.
The NAND
Gate
Truth Table of NAND Gate
The output goes LOW
when all the inputs are HIGH.
 XOR Gate
(Exclusive-OR Gate)

Output is HIGH whenever two

inputs are at opposite levels.

Also known as Selector

Gate
Logic circuit of XOR Gate
 XNOR Gate
(Exclusive-NOR Gate)

Output is HIGH whenever

two inputs are at same
level.

Also known as equal gate

Logic circuit of XNOR Gate
Example 1
Sum-of-Products & Product-of-Sum

• SOP expressions consist of two or more AND terms (products) that are
ORed together
• Example: ABC + A’BC’

• POS expressions consist of two or more OR terms (sums) that are ANDed
together
• Example:
• (A + B’ + C)(A + C)
• (A + B’)(C’ + D)F

• SOP & POS is no longer called logic gates but it is known as

combinational logic circuit
Example 2
 Combinational Logic
Circuit
• Represent by a logic equation
• Logic Circuit
- physical representation of logic equation
• Truth Table
- Prediction of the output from the logic circuit
 • Y = AB + A’B + AB’

Example •
•
Y = MNO + MNO’ +M’N’O + M’NO’
Y = PQRS +P’QR’S+PQ’RS
 Simplification
Using mathematical method -Boolean Algebra /
De Morgan Theorem

- mapping and looping

Using graphical method – - Theoretically can be used for any
Karnaugh Map (K-Map) number of input variables, but
practically limited to 5 or 6 variables.

Valid logic circuit it obtained after simplification

FIGURE 4-16 The same K map with two equally good solutions.
Obtain the
simplest SOP
from the
truth table
Example 3
Solution
Solution
Example 4
Example 5
 Combinational Logic
Circuit
• Can be represented using function equation
f (m,n,o) = m0 + m2 + m3 + m5 + m6+ m7
F(A,B,C,D) = ∑ m(1,3,5,8,9,11,15)
Combinational Logic Circuit
 Don’t Care Condition
• A condition in which can be either 1 or 0 to aid the
simplification process.
• Assigned as X

F(A,B,C,D) = ∑ m(1,3,5,8,9,11,15) +d(0,2,12)

General Design Sequence

• 7 practical design steps

1) Problem Statement
2) Truth-Table Construction
3) Switching Equations Written Paper works
4) Equations Simplified
5) Logic Diagram/Circuit Drawn
6) Logic Circuit Built
7) Logic Circuit Test ( Truth table Verification) Practical
works

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 Designing Combinational Logic Circuits
Design a logic circuit that has three inputs, A, B, and C,
whose output will be HIGH only when a majority of the
inputs are HIGH.

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 62

Step 1: Problem
Statement
• Understand what is the design requirements
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• Identify the inputs and the outputs

 Inputs - A,B and C (3 inputs)

 Outputs X – HIGH when majority input is HIGH
 A input –MSB
 C input – LSB
 63

Step 2: Truth Table

Construction
• Define the logic combination
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logic combination = 2 POWER OF N

where N = no of input

Here;
N=3
logic combination = 2 POWER OF 3
=8
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 Step 3: Switching Equations

• Consider only for the HIGH output

• Based on the INPUT
– When 0 = bar / NOT
– When 1 = normal

X = A’BC + AB’C + ABC’ + ABC

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 Step 4: Equation Simplification

• To minimize the equation (reduce the no of gate) and

maximize its performance.
• Using graphical approach (Karnaugh Map @ K-Map method)
-- Mapping
-- Looping

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 Step 5: Logic Circuit Drawn

• Based on the simplest equation obtain from Step 4

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 Step 6: Circuit Built

• Construct the circuit based on Step 4 on the breadboard

• Used suitable gate and proper practical approach
• Prepare the data sheet for each gate used to ensure the pin
configuration (input, output,Vcc and GND)
Ex:
7404 – AND gate
7408 – NOT gate
7432 – OR gate

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 Wiring Diagram
VDD

7404

7408 7432

A
B
C F

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 Step 7: • Check and verify the truth table

Circuit • Does the practical output match

with the theoretical as in Step 2

Testing

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 Example • Proof that by using Truth Table

(revision)
UNIVERSAL GATE

• Fundamental gates are OR, AND and NOT.

• Any function can be implemented using the
above.
• However, it is possible to implement any logic
function using NAND gates only.
• So, NAND gate is called universal gate.
• Similarly, NOR gate is also universal gate.
NAND Gate
OR gate using NAND gate only:
NOR Gate
OR gate using NOR gate only:
 Example
• By using only 2 input NAND gate, draw the
circuit to implement the following
function :
•