Nuclear Reactions

Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Decay

CS 4.2

State what is meant by alpha, beta and gamma decay of

radionuclides.

CS 4.3

Identify the processes occurring in nuclear reactions

written in symbolic form.
The Atom
The atom consists of two parts:

1. The nucleus which contains:

protons
neutrons

2. Orbiting electrons.
 The Atom
All matter is made up of elements (e.g. carbon,
hydrogen, etc.).

The smallest part of an element is called an atom.

Atom of different elements contain different numbers of

protons.

The mass of an atom is almost entirely due to the

number of protons and neutrons.
Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons

Z
X Element symbol

Atomic number = number of protons

 A

Z
X
A = number of protons + number of neutrons
Z = number of protons

A – Z = number of neutrons

Number of neutrons = Mass Number – Atomic Number

There are many types of uranium:

235 238

92
U 92
U
A A
Z Z
Number of protons Number of protons
Number of Number of
neutrons neutrons
 There are many types of uranium:

235 238

92
U 92
U
A 235 A 238
Z 92 Z 92
Number of protons 92 Number of protons 92
Number of 143 Number of 146
neutrons neutrons
Isotopes of any particular element contain the same
number of protons, but different numbers of neutrons.
Most of the isotopes which occur naturally are stable.

A few naturally occurring isotopes and all of the man-

made isotopes are unstable.

Unstable isotopes can become stable by releasing

different types of particles.

This process is called radioactive decay and the

elements which undergo this process are called
radioisotopes/radionuclides.
 Radioactive Decay

Radioactive decay results in the emission of either:

• an alpha particle (a),

• a beta particle (b),

• or a gamma ray(g).
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 Alpha Decay

An alpha particle is identical to that of a helium nucleus.

It contains two protons and two neutrons.

 Alpha Decay

A A-4 4

Z
X Z-2
Y + 2
He

unstable atom alpha particle

more stable atom
 Alpha Decay
222
226 Rn
88
Ra 86

2
He
 Alpha Decay

A A-4 4

Z
X Z-2
Y + 2
He

226 222 4
88
Ra 86
Rn + 2
He
 Alpha Decay

222 A 4

86
Rn Z
Y + 2
He

222 218 4

86
Rn 84
Po + 2
He
 Alpha Decay

A 230 4

Z
X 90
Th + 2
He

234 230 4

92
U 90
Th + 2
He
 Alpha Decay

230 A 4

90
Th Z
Y + 2
He

230 226 4

90
Th 88
Ra + 2
He
 Alpha Decay

A 214 4

Z
X 82
Pb + 2
He

218 214 4

84
Po 82
Pb + 2
He
 Beta Decay
A beta particle is a fast moving electron which is
emitted from the nucleus of an atom undergoing
radioactive decay.

Beta decay occurs when a neutron changes into a

proton and an electron.
 Beta Decay
As a result of beta decay, the nucleus has one less
neutron, but one extra proton.

The atomic number, Z, increases by 1 and the mass

number, A, stays the same.
 Beta Decay
218
218 At
84
Po 85

-1
b
 Beta Decay

A A 0

Z
X Z+1
Y + -1
b

218 218 0

84
Po 85
Rn + -1
b
 Beta Decay

234 A 0

90
Th Z
Y + -1
b

234 234 0

90
Th 91
Pa + -1
b
 Beta Decay

A 210 0

Z
X 82
Pb + -1
b

210 210 0

81
Tl 82
Pb + -1
b
 Beta Decay

210 A 0

83
Bi Z
Y + -1
b

210 210 0

83
Bi 84
Po + -1
b
 Beta Decay

A 214 0

Z
X 83
Bi + -1
b

214 214 0

82
Pb 83
Bi + -1
b
 Gamma Decay
Gamma rays are not charged particles like a and b
particles.

Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation with high

frequency.

When atoms decay by emitting a or b particles to form a

new atom, the nuclei of the new atom formed may still
have too much energy to be completely stable.

This excess energy is emitted as gamma rays (gamma ray

photons have energies of ~ 1 x 10-12 J).
 NUCLEAR FISSION:
The process in which a heavy nucleus such as
uranium nucleus is broken into two lighter nuclei of
nearly equal masses is known as “nuclear fission”.
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Chain reactions
In most of the nuclei of heavy elements fission can not be
produced easily but if there nuclei are bombarded with
high energy particles like neutron, fission, can take place in
some elements
Hahn, Strassman and other scientists discovered that when
an isotope of uranium 92U235 is bombarded with slow
neutrons fission take place during the process two
intermediate nuclei three neutrons and some energy is
released if barium and krypton are the intermediate nuclei
produced in fission reaction then it can be represented by
the following equation
on1
+ 92U235
( 92U236
)  56Ba 144
+ 36Kr89
+ 3 on1
+Q
Where Q is the energy released in the reaction (92U236)* is
excited compound nucleus.
General scheme of Fission:
Barium and Krypton are not only the intermediate nuclei
which are obtained in the fission reaction but other
intermediate nuclei are also produced thus the general
scheme of the nuclear fission reaction is of the following
form
on1
+ 92U235
( 92U236
) x + y + neutrons + energy ( – ray)
 Chain Reaction
The most important aspect in the fission reaction is the
liberation of at least one or more neutrons. This may further
induce fission in the additional heavy nuclei in the form of a
Chain reaction resulting in the sudden release of a huge
amount of energy (a nuclear bomb). The energy release in the
fission process is due to the conversion of mass defect
between the mass of the heavy nucleus and the resulting
fragments, into energy.
If two neutrons out of three are stopped or captured which can
be done by cadmium or graphite rods in nuclear reactors than
the chain reaction takes place at the uniform rate and a fixed
amount of energy is obtained
Critical Mass and Critical Volume:
It is not possible to start chain reaction n any mass of uranium
the mass of uranium required for producing smooth chain
reaction is called CRITICAL MASS an the volume occupied by
this mass is called CRITICAL VOLUME if the mass is less
than the critical mass than fission chain reaction dies on the
other hand if the mass of uranium is more than it its critical
mass the chain reaction will be uncontrolled one and it will
build up at a fast rate and in a few seconds an explosion will
occur this is the mechanism which is used in ATOMIC BOMB
NEUTRINO: Neutrino is electrically neutral particle of very
small mass it mass is very small as compared to that of
electron and can be neglected.
 NUCLEAR FUSSION:
A process in which two light nuclei
combine (or fuse together) to form a
heavy nucleus and energy is
released is called NUCLEAR
FUSSION the energy released is
called “Thermo- nuclear fusion
energy”
For example when light nuclei of hydrogen are
combined to form a heavier nucleus of helium energy
is liberated in fusion the final mass is smaller than
the initial mass and the deficit of mass is
comparatively greater than its fusion for this reason
the energy librated in fusion process is far greater
than that librated in the process of fission
It is very difficult to produce fusion reaction due to the
fact that when two positively charged nuclei are
brought closer and closer and then fused together
work has to be done against the electrostatics force
of repulsion this require a great deal of energy.
 Fusion in the laboratory:
Control fusion reaction takes place in the
laboratory in the following way
i) 1H2 + 1H2  2He3 + on1 + Q (=3.3Mev)
ii) 1H2 + 1H2  2H3 + 1H1 + Q (=4.0Mev)
iii) 1H3 + 1H2  2He4 + on1 + Q (=17.6Mev)
Fusion reaction (iii) can produce great amount
of energy the raw material for the reaction is
deuteron which is found in abundance in world
oceans as heavy water
 Fusion in Sun and Stars:
The fusion reaction is possible in sun and stars because
of very high temperature the fusion reactions are also
the basic source of energy in stars including the sun
Fusion in Sun:
In the sun reaction of fusion process is as follows:
1H + 1H  1H +  +  (neutrino)
1 1 2 +

1H 2
+ 1 H2
 2He 3
+ (Gamma ray)
1H 1
+ 2 He 3
 2He 4
+ +
+
This process is called PROTON – PROTON CYCLE in
this fusion process the amount of energy is released is
of the order of 25 Mev
 Fusion in Stars:
Another fusion process is suggested by Bethe it is called
CARBON – NITROGEN CYCLE or simply CARBON CYCLE this
process is assumed to occur in stars hotter than sun in this
process four protons are converted into an alpha particle with
carbon acting as a catalyst in the reaction the sequence of
reaction taking place in the carbon cycle are
6C
12
+ 1H1  7N13 + (gamma ray)
7N  6C + + +  (Neutrino)
13 13

6 C13
+ 1 H1
 7 N14
+ (Gamma ray)
7 N14
+ 1 H1
 8 O 15
+ (Gamma ray)
8O
15
 7N15 + + +  (Neutrino)
7N
15
+ 1H1  6C12 + 2He4 (alpha particle)
Carbon reappear i.e. it acts as a catalyst the energy released in
complete cycle is more than 26.7 Mev
 NUCLEAR REACTOR:
A nuclear reactor is a device for utilizing a
chain reaction for any of the several
purpose to produce power to supply
neutrons to induce nucleus reactions to
prepare radioisotopes or to make
fissionable material from certain “fertile”
materials.
 Components of a Reactor:
Typical components of a reactor are
1) Nuclear fuel or fissionable fuel
2) Moderators
3) Control materials
4) Coolants
5) Shielding
 1-Nuclear Fuel:
A material consisting of the fissionable
(or fissile) isotope is called “reactor fuel”
the fuel that may be used in the reactor
are uranium 92U235 or 92U239 or platinum
92
P 239
.
 2) Moderators:
In the nuclear fission process at least one or
more energetic neutrons are produced per fission
to reduce the energy of these neutrons some
suitable materials are required which are known
as “moderators” the good moderating materials
possess usually low mass number and large
slowing down power light water heavy water
graphite beryllium and its oxide and certain
organic compounds are used as moderators
 3- Control Material:
In order to control the nucleus fission in a reactor
suitable neutron absorbing materials required to be
placed in the core region the control material should be
such that it does not become radioactive by neutron
capture
CADMIUM is used as a control material at low
temperature due to its low melting point for higher
temperature an alloy of SILVER with 15% and 5%
CANDIUM is used because of a higher melting point due
to large neutron absorbing capability and very high
melting point BORON is also use as a control material
since times BORON is mixed with stainless steel
aluminum or carbon.
Control rods
 4) Coolants:
As a result of fission a large amount of heat is
generated in the reactor core to remove this heat
materials are use which are called “coolants”
these materials are usually circulated through the
core in order to absorb heat and transfer it to the
outside light water heavy water liquid material
such as sodium, sodium potassium alloy mercury
certain organic liquids and gases are used as
coolants the choice of the coolants depends upon
the type of the reactor.
 Properties of a Good Coolant:
Following are the properties of a good coolant
a) It should have a little effect on neutrons as possible i.e. it
should not absorb nor moderate the neutrons
b) It should not induce any chemical effect with other material in
contact with system
c) The coolant should not breakup under the effect of radiations
d) The coolant material should be capable of acquiring long lived
radioactivity during its circulation through the reactor
e) It should have low vapour pressure at the operating
temperature of the reactor
f) The material should be able to remove large quantities of heat
for a small input of pumping power.
 (5) Shielding:
With the exception of reactors operating at very
low powers all reactors are the sources of
dangerous intense neutron and  - ray radiations
to product the health of persons working in the
reactor area shielding materials is used generally
a layer of concret about six to eight feet thick is
used as a “Biological shield” to remove heat a few
centimeters thick iron or steel very closed to the
core is used as a “thermal shield”.
 BREEDER REACTOR:
A Nuclear Reactor that produces (Breeds) the some kind
of fissile material as it burns is called breeder reactor.
These reactors produce more fuel than what they
consume. They generate electricity and build up fuel
inventory. Breeder reactors while using plutonium as a
fuel can produce more plutonium (94Pu239) than it
consumes, by converting 92U238 . A Breeder reactor which
makes use of fast moving neutrons to bring about the
nuclear chain reaction is called Fast Breeder Reactors.
In the natural occurrence of uranium, the isotope
92U 235
, makes up only 0.72% whereas the rest
99.28% is the other isotope 92U238. The least
abundant isotope 92U235 is used as the fuel for
conventional reactors. If somehow we could
make use of 92U238as a fuel as a nuclear reactor,
we could be better off in increasing the life span
of the existing uranium fuel supplies of the world
deposits of uranium ore.
 Due to this reason our interest in breeder type
reactors has increased significantly. The far more
available isotope, 92U238 has been found more
likely to undergo the following reaction:

+ on1 → 93Np239 + 𝜷−+ 𝝊−(𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒊 𝒏𝒆𝒖𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒐)

+ on1 → 94Pu239 + 𝜷−+ 𝝊−(𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒊 𝒏𝒆𝒖𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒐)
238
92U
238
92U
emitter with a half life of 2.4 × 10 years. It is
239
In this nuclear reaction 94Pu is an alpha
4

responsive to undergo fission by slow

neutrons. In a breeder reactor some of the
235
neutrons from the fission of 92U are used to
238 239
transmute 92U into 94Pu as indicated in the
above reaction. We see that the breeder reactor
does not create material capable of undergoing
fission, but it simply converts the unusable
238
most abundant isotope 92U into fissionable

2.44× 104 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠.

239
isotope 94Pu with a very long half life of
 239
The isotope 94Pu is also radioactive and
235
can decay into 92U with emission of alpha
particle, but due to its long half life large
239
quantities of 94Pu can be collected and used
for power reactors where it fissions under
neutron bombardment with the release of huge
amounts of energy through the following
nuclear reaction:
1 239 1
on + 94Pu  2 on + X + Y + 200 Mev
Where X and Y are the fission fragments.
Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR)
In a fast breeder reactor (FBR) more
fissionable material is produced than
consumed by the capture of fast neutrons from
fertile materials in such reactors the energy of
neutrons should not be lowered thus there is no
need to use moderator in this reactor reaction
in FBR shown in the figure
Liquid Metal Fast Breeder Reactor (LMFBR):
In liquid metal fast breeder rector (LMFBR) stead of
using water as coolant sodium is as coolant the sodium
o o
melts at 98 C and boiling point is 892 C due to this
property of sodium there is no need to pressurize the
reactor keep the liquid sodium from vaporizing sodium
as a high specific heat and is therefore a good liquid for
heat transfer
A schematic diagram of LMFBR is shown in the figure
the reactor core is made up of 15 to 30% 92U235
surrounded by a blanket of 92U238 since fast neutrons
238 239
are more efficient in converting 92U to 94Pu there is
no need o use a moderator in this reactor to slow down
the librated neutrons
Advantages of Breeder Reactor:
A few advantages of breeder reactor are
1) There is no need of moderator
2) No need to pressurize he reactor to keep the
liquid sodium from vaporizing
3) Major portion of available uranium can be
used