Netcentric Fundamentals (ITT501)

Chapter 2 - Overview of
Network Communication
 Topic Outline
• Introduction
• OSI Layer model
• Overview of Physical and Data Link Layer
• Data Link layer access control concepts
• Internetworking and routing
• Overview of Transport Layer services
• Network standards and standardization bodies
 Distributed System
(Network & Communication)
 A closer look at network structure:
• network edge: mobile network
– hosts: clients and servers
– servers often in data centers global
ISP

home
❖ access networks, network
regional ISP
physical media:
wired, wireless
communication
links
❖ network core:
▪interconnected
routers institutional
▪network of network

networks Introduction 1-4

 MAC Addresses
• MAC addresses function at the lowest (Data
Link) networking level.

• If a host does not know the MAC address of

another host on a local area network, it uses
the operating system to discover the MAC
address.

5
 IP Addresses
• All the protocols of the TCP/IP suite identify a
device on the Internet or an intranet by its IP
address.
• An IP address is 32 bits long, made up of 4
bytes separated by periods.
• Within an IP address, each of the four
numbers separated by periods is called an
octet.
• The first part of an IP address identifies the
network, and the last part identifies the host.
• 00000000.00000000.0000000.0000000
6
 Classes of IP Addresses
• IP addresses that can be used by companies and
individuals are divided into three classes: Class A,
Class B, and Class C, based on the number of possible
IP addresses in each network within each class.
• The group of IP addresses assigned to an
organization are unique to all other IP addresses on
the Internet and are available for use on the Internet.

7
 Private IP Addresses
• Private IP addresses are IP addresses that are
assigned by a network administrator for use
on private intranets that are isolated from the
Internet.
• The IP addresses available to the Internet are
called public IP addresses.

8
Dynamically Assigned IP Addresses
• Instead of IP addresses permanently being
assigned to computers (called static IP
addresses), an IP address is assigned for the
current session only (called a dynamic IP
address).

• Internet service providers (ISPs) are

organizations through which individuals and
businesses connect to the Internet.
9
 Network Address Translation
• If the hosts on a network using private IP
addresses need to access the Internet, a
problem arises because the private IP
addresses are not allowed on the Internet.
• The solution is to use NAT (Network Address
Translation), which uses a single public IP
address to access the Internet on behalf of all
hosts on the network using other IP
addresses.
10
 The network core
• mesh of interconnected
routers
• packet-switching: hosts
break application-layer
messages into packets
– forward packets from one
router to the next, across
links on path from source
to destination
– each packet transmitted at
full link capacity
Introduction 1-11
Packet-switching: store-and-forward

L bits
per packet
3 2 1
sour destinati
ce R R
on
bps bps
• takes L/R seconds to transmit one-hop numerical
(push out) L-bit packet into link at example:
R bps ▪ L = 7.5 Mbits
• store and forward: entire packet ▪ R = 1.5 Mbps
must arrive at router before it ▪ one-hop transmission
can be transmitted on next link delay = 5 sec

Introduction 1-12
 Packet Switching: queueing delay, loss

R = 100 Mb/s C
A
D
R = 1.5 Mb/s
B
queue of packets E
waiting for output link

queuing and loss:

❖ If arrival rate (in bits) to link exceeds
transmission rate of link for a period of time:
▪ packets will queue, wait to be transmitted on
link
▪ packets can be dropped (lost) if memory
(buffer) fills up
Introduction 1-13
 Alternative core: circuit switching
end-end resources allocated to,
reserved for “call” between
source & dest:
• In diagram, each link has four circuits.
– call gets 2nd circuit in top link
and 1st circuit in right link.
• dedicated resources: no sharing
– circuit-like (guaranteed)
performance
• circuit segment idle if not used by call
(no sharing)
• Commonly used in traditional
telephone networks

Introduction 1-14
Packet switching versus circuit switching
packet switching allows more users to use network!
example:
▪ 1 Mb/s link
N

…..
▪ each user: use
• 100 kb/s when “active” rs
1 Mbps
• active 10% of time link

• circuit-switching:
– 10 users
• packet switching:
– with 35 users, probability >
10 active at same time is less
than .0004 *
* Check out the online interactive exercisesIntroduction
for more examples 1-15
Packet switching versus circuit
switching
is packet switching a “slam dunk winner?”
• great for bursty data
– resource sharing
– simpler, no call setup
• excessive congestion possible: packet delay and loss
– protocols needed for reliable data transfer,
congestion control
• Q: How to provide circuit-like behavior?
– bandwidth guarantees needed for audio/video
apps

Introduction 1-16
 How do loss and delay occur?
packets queue in router buffers
• packet arrival rate to link (temporarily) exceeds output link
capacity
• packets queue, wait for turn
packet being transmitted (delay)

B
packets queueing (delay)
free (available) buffers: arriving packets
dropped (loss) if no free buffers
Introduction 1-17
 History of the OSI model
OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that
describes how information from a software application in one computer
moves through a physical medium to the software application in another
computer.

Developed by representatives of major computer and telecommunication

companies beginning in 1983, OSI was originally intended to be a detailed
specification of actual interfaces.

Instead, the committee decided to establish a common reference model that

others could then use to develop detailed interfaces, which, in turn, could
become standards governing the transmission of data packets.

The OSI architecture was officially adopted as an international standard by

Protocols at the Application, Presentation,
and Session Layers
• The first three layers of the OSI model are handled by
the protocol specific to the application using it and
are best treated as a single group rather than unique
layers.
• Web browsers, e-mail, chat rooms, and FTP software
are examples of the applications that use the
Internet.

20
 Protocols at the Transport Layer
• A TCP/IP network has two protocols that work
at the Transport layer; one protocol
guarantees delivery and the other does not.
• With TCP/IP, the protocol that guarantees
delivery is TCP and the protocol that does not
is UDP (User Datagram Protocol).
• TCP is used for client and server requests and
responses.
21
 Protocols at the Transport Layer
(Continued)
• Because TCP establishes a connection, it is
called a connection-oriented protocol.
• UDP is a protocol that sends data without
caring about whether the data is received.
• It does not establish a connection first; thus, it
is called a connectionless protocol.

22
 Protocols at the Network Layer
• TCP and UDP communicate with the Network layer,
which is sometimes called the Internet layer.
• Some of the other supporting protocols include
– ARP (Address Resolution Protocol), responsible for locating
a host on a LAN;
– RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol), responsible
for discovering the Internet address of a host on a LAN;
– ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol), responsible for
communicating problems with transmission to devices that
need to know about these problems.

23
 Protocols at the Data Link and Physical
Layers
• PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) is used over
telephone lines, and allows a computer to
connect to a network using a modem.
• PPP is the most popular protocol for managing
network transmission from one modem to
another.

24
 Link layer
terminology:
• hosts and routers: nodes
• communication channels global
ISP
that connect adjacent nodes
along communication path:
links
– wired links
– wireless links
– LANs
• layer-2 packet: frame,
encapsulates datagram
data-link layer has
responsibility of
transferring datagram from
one node Link Layer 5-25
to physically adjacent node
 Link layer: context
• datagram transferred by transportation analogy:
different link protocols • trip from Princeton to
over different links: Lausanne
– limo: Princeton to JFK
– e.g., Ethernet on first
– plane: JFK to Geneva
link, frame relay on – train: Geneva to Lausanne
intermediate links,
• tourist = datagram
802.11 on last link
• transport segment =
• Each link protocol
communication link
provides different
• transportation mode =
services
link layer protocol
– e.g., may or may not
• travel agent = routing
provide rdt over link
algorithm
Link Layer 5-26
 Link layer services
• framing,
– encapsulate datagram into frame,
adding header, trailer
• link access:
– channel access if shared medium

• “MAC” addresses used in frame

headers to identify source, dest
• different from IP address!

Link Layer 5-27

Link layer services (more)

• flow control:
– pacing between adjacent sending and receiving
nodes

• error detection:
– errors caused by signal attenuation, noise.
– receiver detects presence of errors:
• signals sender for retransmission or drops
frame
• error correction:
– receiver identifies and corrects bit error(s) without
resorting to retransmission

Link Layer 5-28

 Where is the link layer
implemented?
• in each and every host
• link layer implemented in
“adaptor” (aka network
interface card NIC) or on
a chip applicatio
n memor
– Ethernet card, 802.11 transport cpu
y
network
card; Ethernet chipset link

– implements link, host

control bus
physical layer link
ler (e.g., PCI)

• attaches into host’s physica

l physical
transmissio
system buses n

• combination of hardware, network

software, firmware adapter
card

Link Layer 5-29

• A data link layer frame has the following parts:
• Frame Header: It contains the source and the
destination addresses of the frame and the control
bytes.
• Payload field: It contains the message to be delivered.
• Trailer: It contains the error detection and error
correction bits. It is also called a Frame Check
Sequence (FCS).
• Flag: Two flag at the two ends mark the beginning and
the end of the frame.
Multiple access links, protocols
two types of “links”:
• point-to-point
– PPP for dial-up access
– point-to-point link between Ethernet switch, host

• broadcast (shared wire or medium)

– old-fashioned Ethernet
– upstream HFC
– 802.11 wireless LAN

shared wire (e.g., shared RF shared humans at a

cabled Ethernet) (e.g., 802.11 WiFi) RF cocktail party
(satellite) (shared air,
acoustical)
Link Layer 5-31
 Multiple access protocols
• single shared broadcast channel
• two or more simultaneous transmissions by nodes:
interference
– collision if node receives two or more signals
at the same time

multiple access protocol

• distributed algorithm that determines how nodes share
channel, i.e., determine when node can transmit
• communication about channel sharing must use
channel itself!
– no out-of-band channel for coordination

Link Layer 5-32

 MAC protocols: taxonomy
three broad classes:
• channel partitioning
– divide channel into smaller “pieces” (time slots,
frequency, code)
– allocate piece to node for exclusive use

• random access
– channel not divided, allow collisions
– “recover” from collisions

• “taking turns”
– nodes take turns, but nodes with more to send can
take longer turns

Link Layer 5-33

 Error detection
EDC= Error Detection and Correction bits (redundancy)
D = Data protected by error checking, may include header fields

• Error detection not 100% reliable!

• protocol may miss some errors, but rarely
• larger EDC field yields better detection and correction

otherwis
e

Link Layer 5-34

Methods
1. Parity Checking
• single bit parity:
detect single bit errors
• two-dimensional bit parity:
detect and correct single bit errors

2. Checksum
• detect “errors” (e.g., flipped bits) in transmitted packet (note:
used at transport layer only)

3. Cyclic redundancy check

• CRC field is appended to the message as the last field in the
message by sending device.
• The receiving device recalculates a CRC during receipt of the
message, and compares the calculated value to the actual
value
• If the two values are notLink Layer
equal, it results in an error . 5-35
Network layer
application

• transport segment from transport

network
data link
sending to receiving host physical
network network

• on sending side network

data link
data link
physical
data link
physical

encapsulates segments physical network

data link
network
data link

into datagrams physical physical

• on receiving side, network

data link
network
data link
physical
delivers segments to
physical
network
data link

transport layer
physical
application
network transport
• network layer protocols network
data link
physical
network
data link
network
data link

in every host, router data link

physical
physical physical

• router examines header

fields in all IP datagrams
passing through it
Network Layer 4-36
 The Internet network layer
host, router network layer functions:

transport layer: TCP, UDP

routing IP protocol
• addressing conventions
protocols
• datagram format
• path selection
network • RIP, OSPF, BGP
• packet handling
layer forwarding
conventions

table
ICMP
protocol
• error reporting
• router “signaling”
link layer

physical layer

Network Layer 4-37

 Two key network-layer services
• forwarding: move analogy:
packets from ❖ routing: process of
router’s input to planning trip from
appropriate router source to dest
output
❖ forwarding: process
• routing: determine of getting through
route taken by single interchange
packets from source
to dest.
– routing algorithms
Network Layer 4-38
Interplay between routing and
forwarding
routing algorithm routing algorithm determines
end-end-path through network

local forwarding
table
header output link forwarding table determines
value 010 3 local forwarding at this router
0 2
010 2
1 1
0111
100
1
value in arriving
packet’s header
0111 1

3 2

Network Layer 4-39

 Transport Layer
application
transport
❖ provide logical communication network
data link

between app processes physical

running on different hosts

log nsp
❖ transport protocols run in end

tra
ica or
le t
systems

nd
-e
▪ send side: breaks app

d n
messages into segments,
passes to network layer
▪ recv side: reassembles application
transport

segments into messages, network

data link
physical
passes to app layer
❖ more than one transport
protocol available to apps
▪ Internet: TCP and UDP Transport Layer 3-40
 Transport Layer sevices
• provides mechanisms
– error control
– flow control
– congestion control to keep track of the data
packets,
– check for errors and duplication
– resend the information that fails delivery.

Transport Layer 3-41

 Transport-layer protocols
application

• reliable, in-order transport

network
data link

delivery (TCP) physical

network
network
data link

– congestion control

log nsp
data link physical

tra
physical

ica or
network

le t
– flow control data link

nd
physical

-e
– connection setup

n
network

d
data link
physical

• unreliable, unordered network

data link

delivery: UDP
physical
network
data link application
physical transport
– no-frills extension of network
data link network
data link
physical
“best-effort” IP physical

• services not available:

– delay guarantees
– bandwidth guaranteesTransport Layer 3-42
 Transport-layer protocols (cont.)

• UDP and TCP responsibility is to extend IP’s

delivery service between two end systems to a
delivery service between two processes
running on the end systems.

• Extending host-to-host delivery to process-to-

process delivery is called transport-layer
multiplexing and demultiplexing.
 Transport vs. network layer
❖network layer: household
logical analogy:
communication 12 kids in Ann’s house sending
letters to 12 kids in Bill’s
between hosts house:
❖transport layer: • hosts = houses
logical • processes = kids
communication • app messages = letters in
envelopes
between processes • transport protocol = Ann’
▪ relies on, enhances, multiplexing and Bill’
network layer demultiplexing to in-house
services siblings
• network-layer protocol =
postal service

Transport Layer 3-44

 Multiplexing/demultiplexing
multiplexing at
handle
sender:data from demultiplexing
use at
header info to
multiple deliver
receiver:
sockets, add transport received segments to
header (later used for correct
demultiplexing) socket

Transport Layer 3-45

 How demultiplexing works
❖ host receives IP datagrams 32 bits
▪ each datagram has source IP address,
destination IP address source port # dest port #
▪ each datagram carries one transport-
layer segment
▪ each segment has source, destination other header fields
port number
❖ host uses IP addresses & port numbers
to direct segment to appropriate application
socket data
(payload)

TCP/UDP segment format

Transport Layer 3-46

 UDP: User Datagram Protocol [RFC 768]
• “no frills,” “bare bones” ❖ UDP use:
Internet transport protocol ▪ streaming
• “best effort” service, UDP multimedia apps
segments may be: (loss tolerant, rate
– lost
sensitive)
▪ DNS
– delivered out-of-order to
app
▪ SNMP
• connectionless: ❖ reliable transfer
– no handshaking between over UDP:
UDP sender, receiver ▪ add reliability at
– each UDP segment application layer
handled independently ▪ application-specific
of others error recovery!

Transport Layer 3-47

 UDP: segment header
length, in bytes of UDP
32 segment, including
bits header
source port # dest port
#checksum
length
why is there a
UDP?
❖ no connection establishment
application (which can add delay)
data
❖ simple: no connection state
(payload)
at sender, receiver
❖ small header size
❖ no congestion control: UDP
UDP segment format can blast away as fast as
desired

Transport Layer 3-48

 TCP: Overview
• point-to-point: • full duplex data:
– bi-directional data flow in
– one sender, one same connection
receiver – MSS: maximum segment
size (536, 1460)
• reliable, in-order byte – MSS is set based on MTU
steam: (MSS = MTU – 40)
– no “message – Path MTU Discovery
boundaries” • connection-oriented:
– handshaking (exchange of
• pipelined: control msgs) init’s sender,
– TCP congestion and receiver state before data
exchange
flow control set window
• flow controlled:
size
– sender will not overwhelm
• send & receive receiver
buffers
3-49
 TCP segment structure
32
URG: urgent data bits
source port dest port counting
(generally not by bytes
used) # sequence #
ACK: ACK of data
#
number
acknowledgement (not
valid heanumber
not segments!)
PSH: push data d
U A P R S F Receive
use
now len d window # bytes
checksu Urg data
(generally not rcvr
m pnter
RST, SYN, FIN:
used) willing
Options (variable
connection to accept
length)
estab
(setup,
application
teardown
Internet
commands) data
checksum (variable
(as in length)
UDP)

Transport Layer 3-50

 TCP seq. #’s and ACKs
Seq. #’s:
Host A Host
– byte stream B
“number” of first User Seq=4
2, ACK
byte in segment’s types ‘C’ =79, d
a ta =
‘C’
data host
ACKs: ACKs
– seq # of next byte ta = receipt of
K =4 3, da
AC ‘C’,
expected from 7 9,
S eq = echoes
other side ‘C’ back ‘C’
– cumulative ACK host
ACKs Seq=4
Q: how receiver handles receipt 3, ACK
=80
out-of-order segments of
– A: TCP spec doesn’t echoed
say, - up to ‘C’
implementor tim
simple telnet e
scenario
Transport Layer 3-51
 TCP reliable data transfer
• TCP creates rdt service • Retransmissions are
on top of IP’s triggered by:
unreliable service – timeout events
• Pipelined segments – duplicate acks
• Cumulative acks • Initially consider
• TCP uses single simplified TCP sender:
– ignore duplicate acks
retransmission timer
– ignore flow control,
congestion control

Transport Layer 3-52

 TCP Flow control: how it works
• Rcvr advertises spare
room by including
value of RcvWindow in
segments
• Sender limits
(Suppose TCP receiver unACKed data to
discards out-of-order RcvWindow
segments) – guarantees receive
• spare room in buffer buffer doesn’t
= RcvWindow overflow
= RcvBuffer-[LastByteRcvd -
LastByteRead]

Transport Layer 3-53

 TCP Connection Management
Recall: TCP sender, receiver Three way handshake:
establish “connection”
before exchanging data Step 1: client host sends TCP
segments SYN segment to server
• initialize TCP variables: – specifies initial seq #
– seq. #s – no data
– buffers, flow control Step 2: server host receives
info (e.g. RcvWindow) SYN, replies with SYNACK
• client: connection initiator segment
Socket clientSocket = new
Socket("hostname","port
– server allocates buffers
number"); – specifies server initial
• seq. #
server: contacted by client
Socket connectionSocket = Step 3: client receives SYNACK,
welcomeSocket.accept(); replies with ACK segment,
which may contain data

Transport Layer 3-54

TCP Connection Management (cont.)

Closing a connection: clien serve

t r
client closes socket: clos
FIN
clientSocket.close(); e

Step 1: client end system

sends TCP FIN control clos
ACK
segment to server e
FIN
Step 2: server receives FIN,
ACK
replies with ACK. Closes
connection, sends FIN. timed
wait
close
d

Transport Layer 3-55

TCP Connection Management (cont.)

Step 3: client receives FIN, clien serve

replies with ACK. t r
closin
– Enters “timed wait” - FIN
g
will respond with ACK
to received FINs
closin
Step 4: server, receives ACK g
ACK. Connection closed.
FIN

Note: with small ACK

modification, can handle
simultaneous FINs. timed close
wait d

close
d

Transport Layer 3-56

 Networking Standards Organizations

• Standards are documented agreements containing

technical specifications

• ANSI (American National Standards Institute) is an

organization composed of more than a thousand
representatives from industry and government who
together determine standards for the electronics industry
and other fields, such as chemical and nuclear
engineering, health and safety, and construction

Network + 57
 Networking Standards Organizations
(continued)

• EIA (Electronic Industries Alliance) is a trade organization

composed of representatives from electronics
manufacturing firms across the United States

Network + 58
 Networking Standards Organizations
(continued)

• TIA (Telecommunications Industry Association) Focuses

on standards for information technology, wireless,
satellite, fiber optics, and telephone equipment

• TIA/EIA alliance are its guidelines for how network cable

should be installed in commercial buildings, known as the
“TIA/EIA 568-B Series.”

Network + 59
 Networking Standards Organizations
(continued)

• IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), or

“I-triple-E,” is an international society composed of
engineering professionals

• IEEE goals are to promote development and education in

the electrical engineering and computer science fields

Network + 60
 Networking Standards Organizations
(continued)

• ISO (International Organization for Standardization),

headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, is a collection of
standards and organizations representing 148 countries

• ISO’s goal is to establish international technological

standards to facilitate global exchange of information and
barrier-free trade

Network + 61
 Networking Standards Organizations
(continued)

• The ITU (International Telecommunication Union) is a

specialized United Nations agency that regulates
international telecommunications, including radio and TV
frequencies, satellite and telephony specifications,
networking infrastructure, and tariffs applied to global
communications

Network + 62
 Networking Standards Organizations
(continued)

• ISOC (Internet Society), founded in 1992, is a professional

membership society that helps to establish technical
standards for the Internet

• ISOC oversees groups with specific missions, such as the

IAB and IETF

Network + 63
 Networking Standards Organizations
(continued)

• IAB (Internet Architecture Board) is a technical advisory

group of researchers and technical professionals
interested in overseeing the Internet’s design and
management

• IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force), the organization

that sets standards for how systems communicate over
the Internet—in particular, how protocols operate and
interact

Network + 64
 Networking Standards Organizations
(continued)
• IANA and ICANN
• Every computer / host on a network must have a unique
address

• Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) kept records of

available and reserved IP addresses and determined how
addresses were issued out

• Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers

(ICANN), a private, nonprofit corporation and is now
ultimately responsible for IP addressing and domain name
management

Network + 65
 References
• Computer Networking: A Top-Down Approach
(7th Edition)
– Chapter 1
– Chapter 3
– Chapter 4
– Chapter 5
– Chapter 6