UNIVERSITY OF LAY ADVENTISTS OF KIGALI

Faculty of Economic Sciences and Management

Level1 January Intake 2025

Module title: Study and Research Skills

Lecturer: Felicien NGIRABAKUNZI(M.Ed. Mgt,MBA-HRM)

2024-2025
 Module description
• This course is designed for first year university
students and aims at helping students to think
about and plan the way they should study and
where necessary to improve their listening,
reading, speaking, writing, studying, revision
and examination techniques. Students are also
introduced to the concepts of research.
 Learning Outcomes
• Apply a range of key transferable and communication skills
to produce assignment work
• Demonstrate how appropriate academic sources for study
and research findings can be accessed and used by
undergraduate students.
• Demonstrate understanding of the research as another
studying process in university settings
• Apply various research principles in the qualitative and
quantitative research processes
• Apply appropriate approaches and techniques that are
commonly used in listening, reading, speaking, writing,
studying, revision and examination
 Assessment Strategy

• Practical group work and presentations 10%

• Individual practical course work No1 marked
by the lecturer 10%
• Individual course work No2 10%
• CAT 30%
• The final exam 40%
 INDICATIVE CONTENT

Unit1: Generalities
unit2:Learning strategies & the process of study
skills
Unit3:Listening: the foundation of all
communication
Unit4:Reading skills /effective reading and note
making
Unit5:speaking skills/public speaking
Unit6:Writing skills
Unit7:Research Basics
Unit8:Library & Research Skills
 Unit1: Generalities
• Each and every student wishes to get good
results. Likewise, when a student comes to
study at UNILAK, he/she intends to succeed all
the courses in a chosen department. However,
each individual should ask him/herself the
reasons why some students fail their courses
and get low performance.
• Indeed, some even fail their courses and this
may put them in a danger of not pursuing their
studies the way they wanted and some will soon
or later even leave the university.
 Cont’d
• Is it because they necessarily do not have
enough intellectual capacity to do university
studies or there are some other factors affecting
their studies? What can be therefore done in
order to avoid such unexpected and unwanted
situations?
 Cont’d
• While students must ask themselves a series of
questions as presented below to be aware of
what to do in order to succeed in their education,
this course intends to challenge each one on the
use of adequate methods which will help in the
end to eventually overcome the probable
challenges. In fact, the university is not an area
of jokes but rather an area where serious people
come to enjoy academic studies and research.
 Cont’d
• Should students necessarily attend all classes? How
to effectively assist all lectures? Is it important to
always take notes for a given course? What does a
student need to do in note taking? Should students
read the notes on the same day? What to do when a
student misses a class? How should a student plan
his/her work in time? Is individual work
interesting? Is group work interesting? How to
make individual and group works profitable? How
not to study "stupidly by heart"? Should one’s
training be strictly limited to the study of the class
notes? How to approach a written or oral test? Etc...
 Cont’d
• Most of colleges’ success is due to motivation
and time management. Anyone who tells you
that they can get through college without studying,
or that they make great grades without studying is
pulling your leg. Success in college takes effort.
• This means that if you want to do well you must
be willing to set aside time to study. You may
have to sacrifice at times. However, effective time
management will allow adequate time for school
as well as a social life or free time to do the
activities that you most enjoy.
 Cont’d
• However, motivation is the key to success in
school. Although we can provide you with
some helpful hints to enhance motivation, we
cannot motivate students. You are responsible
for your study habits, for seeking resources
and assistance, and for managing your time.
You must want to do well enough to put forth
the effort.
 What Are Study Skills?

• Study Skills are strategies and techniques that

enable you to make the most efficient use of
your time, resources, and academic potential.
Developing and improving your study skills can
help you:
• To make more efficient use of your study time -
get more work done in less time!
• To make your learning easier, and help retain
what you have learned for longer.
• To feel the work and effort involved is
worthwhile; it ‘pays dividends’.
 1.1. Major problems for students who study
• Not studying enough
• Wasting time when studying (Have you ever read 2
or 3 pages of material only to discover that you
cannot remember any of the material that you have
just read?)
• Having trouble getting ready to study ("Before I
study; my laundry must be done, the bathroom must
be clean, I need to have all of my errands run, etc.")
• Finding a good place for studying.
• Using a good learning strategy
• 1.2. Solutions to the problems
• Set up a schedule. Allocate more time for the most
difficult classes. Make sure that you allocate time for
recreation and social activities.
• Start studying for 10-15 minutes at a time and then
build up to longer periods of time. If you can no
longer concentrate or remember what you have read,
stop. There's no sense in wasting your valuable time.
• Take breaks. Take breaks when studying. The average
attention span for one task is approximately 20
minutes. Do not attempt to cram! Study small portions
of material, take a break and then study some more.
 Cont’d
• We retain a great deal more if we learn in
small manageable portions, than when we
attempt to learn a great deal of information at
once. Make these breaks mandatory. Even if
you are enjoying your reading or studying,
take some breaks. You do not want to get
burned out.
 Cont’d

• Reward yourself. Reward yourself for studying, learning

a difficult concept, or completing a project. Go to a
movie, spend time with your friends, or do the things you
put off to study. This reinforces your behavior. You are
more likely to study again and concentrate if you know
there is a reward at the end of completing a task.
• Find a good location. Where your study can influence
your concentration and your study habits as well. Make
sure you are comfortable, but not too comfortable. Sitting
at a desk is preferable to lying in bed.
• Use the same place for studying. This will help you
associate that location with studying and will facilitate
concentration.
 Cont’d

• Make sure it is a quiet place. Seeking a quiet well

study area is equally important. A radio blaring in the
background, a stereo blaring next door, and the
sounds of an interesting conversation are a few of the
factors that can disturb a study area.
• Eliminate the obvious distractions. Some of the
more common distractions are telephone calls or
friends and family stopping by chat. newspapers,
magazines, and unfinished projects. Even the sight of
a textbook from another class can serve as a reminder
of how far behind you are in another class, causing
you to waste time worrying. Once you become
aware of these simple distractions, you can eliminate
them and improve your study skills.
 Cont’d
• Remember that memory is "context
dependent." Studying in a physical situation
like the one in which you will be tested
increases your chances to recall
information. (This is another reason why
studying in bed does not work!) Make your
studying situation as similar as possible to the
testing situation. When possible, go review
your materials in the classroom.
 Cont’d
• Memory is also "state dependent." Studying
in an emotional mood like the one you
experience during tests increases your chances
to recall studied information. When studying,
keep the same focus and enhanced attention
you have in your tests. Being too relaxed
during your study time would not match the
level of activation you reach during your tests.
 Unit2: LEARNING STRATEGIES & THE PROCESS OF
STUDY SKILLS
• 2.1. Learning Strategies for different learning styles
• At University, you will be expected to be an
independent learner. Therefore, it is advisable
to think carefully about your learning style (eg:
auditory, visual, Kinesthetic) and how best
you can use your learning strengths to support
your academic studies.
 Learning Strategies

Auditory: If you are an auditory learner, it means

you will learn best by hearing information.
Consider making use of sound in the following
ways:
• Visual: Visual learners often learn best from
seeing information presented in diagrams,
charts or pictures.
• Kinesthetic : A kinesthetic learner will learn
best by touching, doing or moving.
 cont’d

Multi-sensory Learning :It doesn’t matter how you learn

if you use the methods which suit you. However, a
combination of the use of all the senses is the best way
to learn. It appears that on average you will remember:
• 20% of what you read;
• 30% of what you hear;
• 40% of what you see;
• 50% of what you say;
• 60% of what you do.
• But you will remember 90% of what you say, hear, see
and do.
 Cont’
• Multi-sensory learning can help anyone to enhance the
experience of learning and improve recall of important
information. Information is received by the brain through the
sensory channels. These channels are:
• Visual (seeing information)
• Auditory (hearing information)
• Kinesthetic (touching, moving or doing)
• Olfactory (smelling and making associations related to smell)
• Taste (what we experience from the mouth and tongue)
Consider how strongly a smell, taste or hearing a piece of music
can remind you of a previous situation or event. This is
because all your sensory channels have worked
simultaneously to link into your emotions to create that
experience. Multi-sensory learning involves activating as
many of the senses as possible at the same time to aid
 2.2. Ways of studying and reading effectively
• The following are two effective methods for
reading text material. Choose the one that is best
for you.
• a) SQ4R Method:
S = Survey
Q = Question
R = Read
R = Record
R = Recite
R = Review
• Survey: Briefly survey the chapter. Read the authors'
headings. Your aim here is not to go into detail but
to develop a general idea of the structure. This will
prepare you for what you are going to read and grasp
a general understanding of the chapter. Read any
summary. This will remind you of what is important
throughout the chapter. This step helps you to get
acquainted with the chapter.
 Cont’d
• Question: Think about the material as you are
reading. Ask yourself questions about it. These
questions will serve to keep you more involved
with what you are reading. This will keep you
focused on the more important material without
becoming overwhelmed by details. Try formulating
questions as if you were the professor making up
the test. This accomplishes 2 tasks; one, it
facilitates concentration and two, it helps you
prepare for the test
 Cont’d
• Read: Read carefully and try to answer
questions you have asked yourself. Remember
you read a text differently than you read a
novel. A novel is read passively. Textbook
reading requires more concentration and
retention.
• Write: After you have answered a question,
write the answer down. Sum up information in
your own words. Restructure the information
so that it makes the most sense to you.
 Cont’d
• Recite: Recite to yourself what you have read.
Recall main headings and ideas. Be sure to put
ideas in your own words as this will improve
your ability to retain the material.
• Review: Reviewing is the key to figuring out
what you know and what you need to
concentrate on. Try to summarize major points
in the chapter. And answer questions you
posed to yourself while reading
 b) PQ4R METHOD

• PREVIEW: Survey the chapter to determine

the general topics being discussed. Identify the
sections to be read as units. Apply the next
four steps to each section.
• QUESTIONS: Make up questions about the
section. Often, simply transforming section
headings results in adequate questions.
• READ: Read the section carefully trying to
answer the questions you have made up about
it.
 Cont’d
• REFLECT: Reflect on the text as you are reading,
try to understand it, to think of examples, and to
relate the material to prior knowledge.
• RECITE: After finishing a section try to recall the
information contained in it. Try answering the
questions you made up for the section. If you
cannot recall enough read the portions that you had
trouble remembering.
• REVIEW: After you have finished the chapter go
through it mentally recalling its main points Try
again to answer the, questions you made up.
 2.3. Studying
• Studying has many definitions but
our aim is to understand what it
involves. It can be said to be the
process that is used to understand,
remember and recall information.
When studying, one should select
information that he/she wants to learn
from the reading.
 Requirements for one’s study (tools of trade)

• It is very important to acquire what is

needed for the student’s various
subjects that he/she will be studying. It
is like being a farmer who knows what
he/she needs before setting off to the
farms. Unlike the farmer, the student’s
equipment will be very different.
His/her tools are what will be needed
for effective learning.
 Tools cont’d
• Budgeting: Just like the other shopping that
you do, you should budget for your writing
paper, textbooks and so on and buy the correct
amount.
• Keeping of written notes: Note keeping is
certainly not a new thing to you. By now you
must have realized that to learn your notes
effectively, you must ensure that they are well
organized for easy access. Two options for
keeping notes are available to you as student.
 Tools cont’d
Use of files: If you choose to use foolscap paper for
writing your notes, you will need files. There are
many types of files in the market that you can choose
from. Box, spring, clip, and pocket files are available
in many bookshops or from an ordinary retail shop in
your area. Your intended use and the amount of
money will dictate what type of files you will buy.
There are two ways in which you can use files.
• You can choose to have a file for each subject that you
are studying.
• You can file three or more modules in one file like a
box file since it is very big.
 Tools cont’d
Use of exercise books: Notes can also be written
in exercise books. It is practical to choose
large size exercise books with many pages.
You also need to file some photocopied
materials.
• You are free to choose the most convenient
way of keeping your notes from the ways that
have been described above.
 Planning a study schedule

It is your responsibility to develop your mind and

to plan for all the work you will be doing during
your studying.
If you don’t plan your time, you are likely to:
• Use much time on one task leaving out no time
or very little time for the other tasks.
• Work less efficiently because of lack of
commitment.
• Do easy tasks first postponing difficult ones
 Cont’d
In respect of a good study schedule you should ensure the following:
• Draw a study time-table(Self-study hours, discussion hours, time
for break like walking around and meal times, leisure/recreation
hours)
• A place of study: : Apart from pens and books, you will need a
table, a chair and good lighting at night. Other factors like the
following also have to be considered:
• A quiet place with enough air and light
• A table that is clear of distractions like newspapers, a radio or your
children’s exercise books. You may be tempted to check how they
are doing in their schools.
• Do not sit on a sofa set or bed. You could easily go to sleep.
• If you decide to read in the sitting room, face the wall and not the
people.
• Avoid sitting near a window since you can see what is happening
outside and get distracted.
 Cont’d
• Method of study: Read and make notes, think
as you study and do not just read, understand
and not memorize , read widely: read as many
sources as possible on the same subject, draw
relationships between the content that you
read, discuss with fellow students or with your
academic adv. Studying is a silent activity but
an active one.
 Cont’d
• Study or discussion groups: they are very
useful when it comes to studying. . It should
be possible for you to find from your center
two or more students enrolled in the same
module(s) as yourself with whom you can
form a study group.
 Preparing for and taking examinations

• Examinations are one way of effectively

measuring how well you have studied a
certain subject or course. Success or failure in
your work is determined almost entirely by
your ability to perform well in your
examinations.
 Benefits of examinations
• You are forced to revise previous work.
• You work in larger units than you normally do.
• You take wider views and perceive the relationships of the
parts to the whole.
Advantages of Exams Disadvantages of Exams

Exams assist the individuals in Anxiety and stress

broadening knowledge

Create competition Not the right way of testing the

knowledge of someone

Scholarships and a bright future Comparison between students

Develops confidence and
personality Cramming
 CONT’D
• READ MORE ON THIS AND MAKE A
SUMMARY ON ADAVANTAGES AND
DESADVANTAGES OF EXAMS
• Activity
• Advantages and Disadvantages of Exams
• https://www.aplustopper.com/advantages-
and-disadvantages-of-exams/
 Steps in revising for an examination

• Be aware of what is expected of you by the

examiner. You will need to get the course
outlines of your modules. It is important that
you cover 100% of the content. Do not go into
an examination room with gaps in your
knowledge or understanding.
• Look for past examination papers of the past
three to four years to see what grounds are
covered.
• Make revision aids from your notes for quick
reading.
 What do you review?

• Lecture notes
• Study notes
• Main ideas and important details that you may
have underlined or highlighted in your
textbooks.
• Relevant past examination paper.
 How do you review?

• Use short periods to review the content like two hours and take a break
when necessary.
• Re-read to a minimum. Going through your notes six times over will
not be very useful.
• Plan an answer to a question by writing down the main points to a
question or more.
• Test yourself by answering some past paper questions in the time that
is required by the examiner.
A revision time-table is very essential and when making it, you should
have the following factors in mind:
• The subject’s length and difficulty.
• The total number of examinations.
• Your own strengths and weaknesses in the subjects that you are
studying. You will then assign more time to revising the difficult
subjects.
 2.4. Taking examinations

On receiving the question paper, do the

following before you start answering the
questions?
• Check to find out that you have received the
correct question paper.
• Write your registration number on the answer
booklet, the module code and title.
• Read the instructions very carefully.
• Read through all the questions.
 Cont’d
You should do the following if you want to do
well in examinations:
• Answer any compulsory questions. They
usually deal with the core of the course and
failure to answer them could mean failure in
your examinations.
• Answer the right number of questions, not
more than you are asked to or fewer.
• Answer each question as fully as you can
within the available time for each question.
 UNIT III. LISTENING: THE FOUNDATION OF ALL COMMUNICATION

3.1. Basic communication skills

• Communication is defined as the transfer of ideas,
messages or information from one person to
another.
• To maintain a healthy communication, both the
sender and the receiver must go through this
process without bringing in other elements of
intellectual thoughts and judgments as they tend
to harm the harmonious process of passing and
receiving messages. Thus, there are requirements
that the sender and the receiver must observe:
 Cont’d
From the perspective of the sender, one needs
to have the following essential skills:
• Skills to compose the message
• Skills to send the message
From the perspective of the receiver, one needs
to have the following essential skills:
• Skills of receiving the message without
assumptions
• Placing all personal and group biases aside
• Listening actively
 3.2. Listening skills

• Listening is more than just part of spoken

communication. It involves both verbal and non-
verbal messages. Listening skills are very important to
the success of all human interactions.
Listening can be defined as follows:
 Listening is the active process of receiving aural
stimuli (De Vito, 1987: 26)
 Listening is a voluntary process that goes beyond
simply reacting to sounds. It includes understanding,
analyzing, evaluating and responding.
 Listening is an active, deliberate, selective process by
which a message is received, critically interpreted and
acted upon by a purposeful listener.
 Poor listening habits

• Poor listeners consider listening to be an automatic

process and not a learned behavior which can be
improved. They often stop listening when a difficult
subject or topic is being discussed.
• When they think the topic is uninteresting, they stop
listening and do something else.
• They don’t want to listen to speeches that are counter.
When they disagree with the speaker, they try to think
counter argument. They consider the speaker the only
one responsible for the success of the communication.
• They listen for facts and ignore the rest of the message.
They end up ‘putting words’ in mouth of the speakers”
and often jump to a conclusion.
 Barriers to effective Listening
The following are some examples of barriers to
effective listening and their possible solutions.
1. Unfamiliarity with the subject under discussion
2. Prejudices and bias (this may be based on
culture, gender, religion, ethnic background, etc.
3. Inattention
4. Feeling time pressures
5. Dealing with outside distractions
6. Having a tendency to daydream
 Cont’d
7. Controlling emotional hot buttons
8. Mental or physical fatigue
9.Listening to a boring, monotone speaker
10. Having problems with the speaker’s
language or speech habits.
 Possible solutions
1.One way of dealing with this is to do discussion
prior preparation for the listening activity.
2. Separate the message from the speaker and
concentrate on the message.
3. Make a conscious decision to fight against all
the opportunities to lose attention.
Deliberately postpone any personal or other
problem until after the lecture or presentation.
 Other relevant barriers to listening
• 1. Interrupting the speaker.
2. Not maintaining eye contact with the speaker.
3. Rushing the speaker to complete what he/she has to say.
4. Making the speaker feel as though he/she is wasting the
listener's time.
5. Being distracted by something that is not part of the
ongoing communication.
6. Getting ahead of the speaker and completing his/her
thoughts.
7. Ignoring the speaker's requests.
8. Topping the speaker's story with one's own set of
examples.
9. Forgetting what is being discussed.
10. Asking too many questions, for the sake of probing.
 3.4. Improving listening skills

If you want to improve your listening skills, try to

apply the strategies below:
1. Maintain eye contact with the instructor.
2. Focus on content, not delivery.
3. Avoid emotional involvement.
4. Avoid distractions.
5. Treat listening as a challenging mental task.
6. Stay active by asking mental questions.
7. Use the gap between the rate of speech and
your rate of thought
 UNIT IV. READING SKILLS /EFFECTIVE READING AND NOTE MAKING

• Introduction
Much of your time at university will be spent
reading. You will be directed in your reading
by your module leader or lecturers and given
'Reading Lists'.
• You will need to 'absorb' and remember the
facts, concepts, arguments, principles and
information within the texts. How you do this
is an important skill to develop and learn.
 Types of reading
• Here are four different kinds of reading.
• Skimming: running the eyes over quickly, to get the
gist (the most important piece of information about
something, or general information without details)
• Scanning: looking for a particular piece of
information
• Extensive reading: longer texts for pleasure and
needing global understanding
• Intensive reading: shorter texts, extracting specific
information, accurate reading for detail.
 Reading lists

What are 'Reading Lists' and what are they for?

To help you understand the subject/s you are
studying, you will be given a 'reading list' by
your subject lecturer. Such a list has
'Recommended Texts' and 'Further
Texts/Reading' on it. The 'Recommended
Texts' are books which your lecturer considers
to be of particular importance for you to help
you understand your subject. The Further
Texts/Reading are additional reading to give
you a broader picture of the subject.
 How to read more effectively

A good formula for reading more efficiently is known as

SQ3R (short for Survey, Question, Read, Recall, and
Review).
The five stages in this approach are:
• Survey the material first to get a general view of what
you will study in detail (scan the table of contents, the
introduction, headings, emphasized sections, exercises,
summaries and final paragraphs).
• Think up Questions that relate to the purpose of your
study and allow you to read with anticipation (e.g. why
does the author divide up his material this way?).
• Read the material (preferably two or three times, quite
fast rather than once slowly). During this stage:
 Cont’d
• Stop after each section of material to Recall what you
have read (and make notes of the main ideas and
important details).
• Review what you have read (and test the accuracy of
your notes) by running quickly through the four
previous stages again.
4.5. Taking notes from your reading
Make notes during your reading at the Recall stage
because:
– It keeps you active and concentrating (so you learn and
remember better);
– They provide a written record for revision.
 Improving your reading speed

Here are five ways you can start helping yourself to read faster.
• Have your eyes tested- many people turn out to need reading glasses for
continuous study.
• Make sure you don't mouth words or say things aloud as you read.
• Try to read in "thought units" (two or three words at a time) so that your
eyes only stop three or four times in a line of print instead of every word.
• Build up your vocabulary by:
– Reading widely.
– Using a dictionary whenever new words crop up in your reading,
noting their meaning.
– (c) Making glossaries of words commonly used in your subjects.
• Practice reading faster (force yourself) by:
– Timing your reading of magazine articles of known length and test
your recall of the content.
– Reading all your study materials faster, even if you have to read them
more than once.
 UNIT5: SPEAKING SKILLS/PUBLIC SPEAKING

• Making a public speech is a skill that can

develop with time. Majority of people
normally fear to make a public speech mainly
because they think that they may make
mistakes. Others fear that they may be asked
difficult questions which may make them look
like fools of they fail to answer them.
• Unlike dialogues and conversations, public
speaking is formal and aims at convincing.
 5.2. Types of speaking

• A speech generally has one of three basic purposes: to

inform, to persuade, or to entertain.
• An informative speech is a narration concerning a
specific but does not involve a sustainable effort to
teach. Speeches to students at the open day and
presentation of the guild council officials are examples
of speeches which are informative.
• A persuasive speech is designed to move an audience to
belief or action on some topic, product, or other matter.
• An entertainment speech gives enjoyment to the
audience. The speaker often relies on humor and vivid
language as a primary means of entertaining the
listeners.
 5.3. Characteristics of an effective speaker

• Have insight, i.e. know their strengths and

weaknesses
• Know the audience
• Know what they are speaking and what they hope
to achieve
• Always practice or do a dry run of their speeches.
• Take the speech as if it was a performance. They
know they have to work hard to keep their listeners
interested in what they have to say.
• Make a post-speech evaluation or critique their
presentation. They believe this will feed into the
next speech and lead a better performance.
 Cont’d
• Personal qualities:
• Clarity, clear: when you speak, you must
clarify your pronunciation, enunciation and
vocabulary. Use simple language and utter
words distinctly.
• Accuracy, accurate: the word that is used
must mean what you want to say. Make sure
that your diction is accurate.
• Empathy: you put yourself in the place of the
listener when you are talking. You should
always try to be courteous and friendly.
 Cont’d
• Sincerity, sincere: you should be natural, do not try to
sound like someone else.
• Relaxation, relax: you must relax your mind and your
vocal cords.
• Eye contact: you must look at the audience when you
are talking.
• Appearance: avoid casual wear (jeans, T-shirt, sandal,
etc.); avoid overdressing. You must be modest.
• Posture: how you stand, take the central position in
front of the audience.
 5.4. Preparing a speech: Stages

Consider the following stages for preparing a

good speech:
• Topic selection (sometimes the topic is
prescribed. Even then it is important)
• To consider whether it is specific and narrow
enough to be handled in the time available
• Topic development
• Presentation
• Post-presentation
 5.5. Presentation skills tips

• Content
• Should be relevant to the audience,
• Main points should be expressed with emphasis or
repeated 3 times (if time allows),
• Mastery of the topic - Present what you know,
• Audience
• Be aware of the size of your audience
• Experience (What experience does the audience have
with the topic)
• Interest in the topic, needs
• Gender balance (content and delivery may change in a
mixed gender audience)
•
 Cont’d
• Delivery
• Eye contact (make frequent eye contact with the audience
– pick two or three people seated in different places and
look at them)
• Timing (time of day/time in relation to other topics/timing
of specific remarks - silence can be powerful)
• KISS (Keep It Short and Simple)
• Voice (volume, tone modulation)
• Language (avoid jargon)
• Gestures.
• Visual Aids
• KISS [Keep It Short and Simple]
• Should support and not detract from the presentation
 5.6. Important factors to consider

• Oral Communication is different from Written

Communication
• Listeners have one chance to hear your talk
and can't "re-read" when they get confused
• Think about your Audience -- Most audiences
should be addressed in layers: some are
experts in your sub-area, some are experts in
the general area, and others know little or
nothing. Who is most important to you? Can
you still leave others with something?
 Cont’d
• Think about your Rhetorical Goals: Your
presentation should not replace your paper,
but rather whet the audience appetite for it.
Thus, it is commonly useful to allude to
information in the paper that can't be covered
adequately in the presentation.
 Preparation

Prepare the structure of your talk carefully and

logically, just as you would for a written report.
Think about:
• the objectives of the talk
• the main points you want to make
Rehearse your presentation - to yourself at first
and then in front of some colleagues. The initial
rehearsal should consider how the words and
the sequence of visual aids go together. How
will you make effective use of your visual aids?
 Making the Presentation

• Greet the audience and tell them who you are

and then follow this formula:
• tell the audience what you are going to tell
them;
• then tell them; and
• at the end tell them what you have told them.
Keep to the time allowed. If you can, keep it
short. It's better to under-run than over-run.
 Delivery

• Speak clearly. Don't shout or whisper.

• Don't rush, or talk deliberately slowly. Be natural - although
not conversational.
• Deliberately pause at key points - this has the effect of
emphasising the importance of a point you are making.
• Avoid jokes - always disastrous unless you are a natural
expert.
• To make the presentation interesting, change your delivery:
speed, pitch of voice.
• Use your hands to emphasise points but don't indulge in too
much hand waving. People can over time, develop irritating
habits.
• Look at the audience as much as possible, but don't fix on
one individual - it can be intimidating.
 Cont’d
• Avoid moving about too much. Pacing up and
down can unnerve the audience, although
some animation is desirable.
• Keep an eye on the audience's body language.
Know when to stop and when to cut out a
piece of the presentation.
 Visual Aids

• Visual aids significantly improve the interest of

a presentation. However, they must be
relevant to what you want to say.
• Finally, Enjoy yourself. The audience will be on
your side and want to hear what you must
say!
 5.7. Presentation Skills Practice Tips

Practising these exercises will make your next

presentation more natural.
• Posture
• Practise standing in the correct posture [feet,
knees, hips, shoulders all in a straight line with
your arms at your sides] while standing on
lifts, standing in queues, waiting at the cash
machine, on a coffee break, etc.
 Cont’d

• Gestures
• Start practising the use of gestures for
description and/or emphasis by first becoming
more aware of your own natural gestures. Do
you gesture while on the telephone? Do you
gesture while talking to a friend, colleague, or
family member? By increasing your awareness of
what you do with your arms and hands in every
day conversations, you will then be able to
transfer these gestures into all speaking
situations.
 Cont’d
• Facial Animation
• Appropriate facial expressions usually coincide with
gestures. If you tend to look overly serious during
presentations, using more gestures will help things up.
• For Volume and Variety: adapt your voice depending on the
size of the audience and room in which you are presenting.
• Pause and Pace and eye Contact: These elements are also
very crucial.
• Mastering public speaking involves having public speaking
confidence and delivering information to folk who are, in 1
way or another, waiting to get some information. This is a
key reason why you must prepare and be prepared as you
tool up to make your speech and as you plan to meet your
audience.
 Tips for effective communication

• Use active listening: Demonstrate that you are listening

by nothing, making eye contact and confirming what
they have said. E.g.: ‘understand that you are frustrated
and can see your point of view’.
• Empathize: Put yourself in the other person’s position.
Imagine how they feel and show that you respect their
feelings and point of view.
• Use “I” statements: E.g.: “I feel frustrated.” Rather than
“you make me frustrated”. “I” statements allow you to
take responsibility for how you feel and what you want.
• Stay aware: Be thoughtful of what you say and avoid
affecting people. Do not talk over people or dominate
conversation.
 Cont’d
• Use appropriate language: Be aware of the company you
are in and use language that is acceptable to those
people.
• Be humble: see yourself as you really are, with both
strengths and weaknesses. Don’t talk to people as if you
are better than they are. Good communication skills
• The way one communicates does not only have an impact
on their professional and personal relations, but also an
effect on others. Those who do not have appropriate
communication skills are usually ignored or simply kept
at bay, whereas those with good communication skills
are looked upon and well respected.
 More on important tips to good communication skills .
• Maintain eye contacts with the audience
• This is vital as it keeps all those present involved in the
conversation. It keeps them interested and on the alert
during the conversation.
• Body awareness
• One needs to be aware of all that their body is
conveying to them as well as to others. For instance, if
there is anxiety rising during the conversation, then
one feels thirsty and there may be a slight body tremor.
At that point, one needs to pause and let some else
speak. A few deep breaths and some water works as a
magic portion at this point.
 Cont’d
• Gestures and expressions
One needs to know of how to effectively use hand
gestures and the way they need to posture their body
to convey their messages effectively. Sometimes, it
may happen that they verbally convey something but
their gestures and facial expressions have another
story to tell.
• Convey one’s thoughts
It is important for one to courageously convey what
they think. This is because when things are left unsaid,
then what is being spoken is not as convincing as it
should be. Then a lack of confidence develops.
 More on Practice effective communication skills

• One should practice speaking and listening

skills as often as possible. In order to practice
effective speaking skills, one can read
passages from a book aloud in front of a
mirror or simply perform a free speech in
front of the mirror. And where listening is
concerned one can try transcribing from the
radio or television. This helps in acquiring
sharper listening skills.
 UNIT VI.WRITING SKILLS

6.1. Introduction
• The purpose of this lecture is to introduce
you to the key concepts that define the
kind of essays you are required to write as
a university student pursuing
undergraduate studies. Writing is a very
practical skill. Although we may tell you
something entailed to be known about
writing, for you to know how to write well,
you must put to practice whatever new
ideas this unit tells you about.
 Cont’d
• Writing will be used to assess you because
it can tell your tutors if you have been
thought well enough while preparing your
essay task. You must therefore train
yourself to write well for it is only through
the way you write that others will know
whether you are a clear or poor thinker.
This is because writing at university; essay
is fundamentally a thinking process.
 Cont’
Remember also that your writing is a mirror
of your reading habits. People who write
well are usually people who also read well
for a variety of purposes. In assessing your
writing, therefore, your reading skills are
also being assessed.
 6.2. Essay writing

• An essay is, generally, a piece of writing

that gives the author's own argument —
but the definition is vague, overlapping
with those of a paper, an article, a
pamphlet, and a short story.
• An essay is a short piece of writing that
expresses information as well as the
writer’s opinion.
• An example of an essay is a short paper
about why smoking is bad.
 Cont’d
• An essay has three main parts:

1. Introduction: The introduction should be one

paragraph. It should introduce the topic and main idea
and preview the rest of your essay. The introduction will
also include your thesis statement.
2. Body: The body is generally made up of three
paragraphs. Each paragraph supports and develops (adds
detail to) your main idea. To guide your reader, each body
paragraph should begin with a clear topic sentence.
3. Conclusion: The conclusion is one paragraph. It
summarizes the body paragraphs and concludes the essay.
 6.3. Writing process

• The writing process can be described as a

process of discovering ideas, developing and
organizing them. The process is not simple,
and neither does it take place in a linear
manner. Good writing takes a lot of time and
practice.
• No two people write in the same way. Some
outline ideas before writing about them, some
do not. Some write their introduction first,
while others at the end.
 Tips in essay writing
• In your essay writing use your own words, no
matter how poor you believe your written
skills to be;
• Avoid using too many quotations;
• Accurately reference your sources;
• Do not copy down information word for word;
• Use a different colored pen to copy quotes or
when writing any other information down
word for word. It will help you to identify the
extent to which you are copying;
 Cont’d
Write your notes in your own words. Read a
passage and then cover the page and
summarize out loud in your own words, then
make your own notes;
• If you omit words from a direct quote indicate
this by using three dots inside parentheses
(…)essay as they go along; some do it at a later
point
 Important stages in essay writing
most experienced writers have reported that to
produce a good piece of writing, you should
pass through certain stages while writing an
essay.
These are:
• Exploring and planning: discovering a topic,
focusing, finding support details and organizing
ideas;
• Drafting: getting ideas and supporting details
down on paper in rough form;
 Cont’d
• Revising: rethinking and rewriting drafts to
improve content, focus and structure;
• Editing and proof reading: checking for
effective word choice and sentence structure,
correct grammar, spelling, punctuation and
mechanics.
 6.4. Report writing

• A report is a formal piece of written work and

presented in a different style from an essay.
• Reports are usually written for a clear and
specific purpose and are likely to be aimed at a
person or group of people. A report may need
to make recommendations for action. The
structure of a report is more detailed than an
essay with the use of headings and sub-
headings to introduce pieces of information.
You may find it helpful to consider the following
areas when report writing: Planning, Research,
Structure, Writing and Language
 Report writing, planning
• Answering these questions will help you in
planning your report and organizing your
work:
• WHO:
 Who has requested you produce the report?
 Who is it aimed at/will be reading it?
 Who might be required to follow up any
suggestions or recommended actions in the
report?
 Cont’d
WHY:
 Why is the report being produced?
 Think about the purpose of the report and
possible outcomes.
 cont’d

WHAT
• What are the terms of reference or aims of the
report?
• The terms of reference or aims will identify what
the report should be about, the range of what it
should cover.
• It is likely that the terms of reference or aims may
be defined by whoever is requesting the report eg.
Supervisor or tutor.
• What are the objectives of the report? What might
be expected as a result? It may be a conclusion,
recommendations and/or suggested action
 Cont’d
WHEN
• Timescale – keep in mind your deadlines
• Identify a realistic timetable.
• Schedule deadlines for obtaining information
from external sources eg. interviews, data
provided by others, as well as from your own
research.
 cont’d

HOW
• The structure of your report may be governed by
your subject. Scientific, medical, laboratory,
engineering, management, business and
placement reports (and others!) may require
different formats and are likely to require different
types of information.
• Your report will need to follow a logical sequence
with clearly identified sections for different
subject areas/parts of the report.
• You will need to use headings and sub-headings
and possibly a numbering system.
 Cont’d
below is an example of how your report may be structured:
• 1 Introduction
• 1.1 The problem
• 1.2 The purpose of the Research
• 1.3 Objectives
• You do not need to write each section in the order of the
planned
structure of the report. Write different sections as you have
the appropriate information, you can order it later.
• Be aware that the format of your completed report may
change from your original planned format.
 Report structure

The report structure may contain the following:

• Title Page
• Acknowledgements
• Contents Page
• List tables and illustrations
• Abstract - briefly outline your report with the conclusions
• Introduction - outline research in this area and its
significance within the content of your report.
• Literature Review - discuss the most important/relevant
and up-to-date research linked to your research and
introduces arguments supporting or opposing research
opinion.
 Cont’d
• Methodology - a description of the research methods you
used
• Results - state the main findings
• Analysis of results - discuss the main findings, analyzing
results against the research covered in your literature review.
Do the findings agree or disagree with those findings?
• Conclusions
• Recommendations
• Appendices
• References - a list of authors or sources cited directly in your
text.
• Bibliography - a list of the general reading material you have
used.
• Glossary.