Introduction to

Software
Engineering
1
 What is software?

• Computer programs and

documentation associated

2
 What is
software?
Programs

Documentation Operating
Procedures

Software=Program+Documentation+Operating
Procedures Components of software
3
 Documentation manuals
are…
Analysis
Formal Specification
Context-Diagram
/Specification
Data Flow Diagrams

Flow Charts
Design
Entity-Relationship
Documentation Diagram
Manuals
Source Code Listings
Implementation Cross-Reference
Listing
Test Data
Testing Test Results

List of documentation manuals

4
 Operating procedure
manuals are…
System Overview
User Beginner’s Guide
Manuals Tutorial
Reference Guide

Operating
Procedures

Installation Guide
Operational
Manuals
S
y
s
t
e
m
5
Administration Guide
 Software Products

• Software products may be developed for a

particular customer or may be developed for a general
market
• Software products may be
–Generic - developed to sold to a range of
be customers different
–Bespoke (custom) - developed for a single customer
according to their specification

6
 Software products
Generic products
Stand-alone systems that are marketed and sold to any
customer who wishes to buy them.
Examples – PC software such as graphics programs,
project management tools; CAD software; software for
specific markets such as appointments systems for
dentists.
Customized products
Software that is commissioned by a specific customer to
meet their own needs.
Examples – embedded control systems, air traffic control
software, traffic monitoring systems.
7
 Software Product
Software product is a product designated for
delivery to the user
Source Reports Documents
Codes

Manuals
Objects Plans
Codes Data

Test
Suites Test Prototypes
results

8
 Product specification
Generic products
The specification of what the software should do
is owned by the software developer and
decisions on software change are made by the
developer.
Customized products
The specification of what the software should do
is owned by the customer for the software and
they make decisions on software changes that are
required.
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 What is software
engineering?
Software engineering is an engineering discipline which
is concerned with all aspects of software production
Software engineers should
– adopt a systematic and organised approach to their
work
– use appropriate tools and techniques depending on
• the problem to be solved,
• the development constraints and
– use the resources available
1
0
 What is software
At the firstengineering?
conference on software engineering
in 1968, Fritz
Bauer defined software engineering as “The establishment and
use of sound engineering principles in order to obtain
economically developed software that is reliable and works
efficiently on real machines”.

Stephen Schach defined the same as “A discipline whose aim is

the production of quality software, software that is delivered on
time, within budget, and that satisfies its requirements”.

Both the definitions are popular and acceptable to

majority. However, due to increase in cost of maintaining software,
objective is now shifting to produce quality software that is
maintainable, delivered on time, within budget, and also satisfies its
requirements. 11
 Frequently asked questions
about software engineering
Question Answer

What is software? Computer programs and associated documentation.

Software products may be developed for a particular
customer or may be developed for a general market.
What are the attributes of good Good software should deliver the required functionality
software? and performance to the user and should be
maintainable, dependable and usable.
What is software engineering? Software engineering is an engineering discipline that
is concerned with all aspects of software production.
What are the fundamental software Software specification, software development,
engineering activities? software validation and software evolution.
What is the difference between software Computer science focuses on theory and
engineering and computer science? fundamentals; software engineering is concerned with
the practicalities of developing and delivering useful
software.
What is the difference between software System engineering is concerned with all aspects of
engineering and system engineering? computer-based systems development including
hardware, software and process engineering. Software
engineering is part of this more general process.

12
 Frequently asked questions about
software engineering
Question Answer
What are the key challenges facing Coping with increasing diversity, demands for reduced
software engineering? delivery times and developing trustworthy software.
What are the costs of software Roughly 60% of software costs are development costs,
engineering? 40% are testing costs. For custom software, evolution
costs often exceed development costs.
What are the best software engineering While all software projects have to be professionally
techniques and methods? managed and developed, different techniques are
appropriate for different types of system. For example,
games should always be developed using a series of
prototypes whereas safety critical control systems
require a complete and analyzable specification to be
developed. You can’t, therefore, say that one method is
better than another.

What differences has the web made to The web has led to the availability of software services
software engineering? and the possibility of developing highly distributed
service-based systems. Web-based systems
development has led to important advances in
programming languages and software reuse.

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Essential attributes of good
software
Product characteristic Description

Maintainability Software should be written in such a way so that it can evolve to

meet the changing needs of customers. This is a critical
attribute because software change is an inevitable requirement
of a changing business environment.
Dependability and Software dependability includes a range of characteristics
security including reliability, security and safety. Dependable software
should not cause physical or economic damage in the event of
system failure. Malicious users should not be able to access or
damage the system.

Efficiency Software should not make wasteful use of system resources

such as memory and processor cycles. Efficiency therefore
includes responsiveness, processing time, memory utilisation,
etc.
Acceptability Software must be acceptable to the type of users for which it is
designed. This means that it must be understandable, usable
and compatible with other systems that they use.

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 Software Application
System software : ADomains
collection of programs written to
service other programs. Some system software (e.g.,
compilers, editors, and file management utilities)
Application software : Stand-alone programs that solve
a specific business need. Application software is used to
control business functions in real time (e.g., point-of-sale
transaction processing, real-time manufacturing process
control).
Web applications : These Applications called
“WebApps,” this network-centric software category spans
a wide array of applications. In their simplest form,
WebApps can be little more than a set of linked hypertext
files that present information using text and limited
graphics. 15
 Software Application
Domains
Engineering/scientific software : It has been characterized by
“number crunching” algorithms. Applications range from
astronomy to volcanology, from automotive stress analysis to space
shuttle orbital dynamics, and from molecular biology to automated
manufacturing.

Embedded software : It resides within a product or system and is

used to implement and control features and functions for the end
user and for the system itself. Embedded software can perform
limited and esoteric functions (e.g., key pad control for a microwave
oven) or provide significant function and control capability (e.g.,
digital functions in an automobile such as fuel control, dashboard
displays, and braking systems).

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 Software Application
Domains
Batch processing systems
These are business systems that are designed to process
data in large batches. They process large numbers of
individual inputs to create corresponding outputs.
Entertainment systems
These are systems that are primarily for personal use
and which are intended to entertain the user.
Systems for modeling and simulation
These are systems that are developed by scientists and
engineers to model physical processes or situations,
which include many, separate, interacting objects.

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 Software Application
Domains
Product-line software : Designed to provide a specific
capability for use by many different customers. Product-line
software can focus on a limited and esoteric marketplace (e.g.,
inventory control products) or address mass consumer
markets (e.g., word processing, spreadsheets, computer
graphics, multimedia, entertainment, database management,
and personal and business financial applications).
Artificial intelligence software : These makes use of non
numerical algorithms to solve complex problems that are not
amenable to computation or straightforward analysis.
Applications within this area include robotics, expert systems,
pattern recognition (image and voice), artificial neural
networks, theorem proving, and game playing. 18
 Software engineering
fundamentals
Some fundamental principles apply to all types of software
system, irrespective of the development techniques used:
Systems should be developed using a managed and
understood development process. Of course, different
processes are used for different types of software.
Dependability and performance are important for all
types of system.
Understanding and managing the software specification
and requirements (what the software should do) are
important.
Where appropriate, you should reuse software that has
already been developed rather than write new software.
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 Software
./Software does Characteristics:
not wear out.
Software doesn’t wear out because the hard drive, USB drive,
computer memory, or other “container” it’s stored in (or on)
protects it from being damaged and degrade.
./ Software is developed or engineered not manufactured
./ Reusability of components (Maintenance is without spare
parts)
./ Software is flexible (Intangible)

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 Cont…
Well-Engineered Software
Well-engineered software is one that has the following
characteristics:
It is reliable
It has good user-interface
It has acceptable performance
It is of good quality
It is cost-effective

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 Software
Development
Software Development Life Cycle :Life
Suggests a systematic
Cycle
sequential approach to SW development that begins at the
system level and progresses through analysis, design,
coding, testing and support

22
 Software Process
A generic framework
process framework for software engineering
encompasses five activities:
Communication: Before any technical work can commence,
it is critically important to communicate and collaborate
with the customer. The intent is to understand stakeholders
objectives for the project and to gather requirements that
help define software features and functions.
Planning: Defines the software engineering work by
describing the technical tasks to be conducted, the risks that
are likely, the resources that will be required, the work
products to be produced, and a work schedule. 23
 Software Process
framework
Modeling: Creation of models to help developers and
customers understand the requires and software design
Construction: This activity combines code generation and
the testing that is required to uncover errors in the code.
Deployment: The software is delivered to the customer
who evaluates the delivered product and provides
feedback based on the evaluation.

24
 Software
Process models
Waterfall/Linear Sequential model

Prototype model

Evaluation model

Spiral model

25
 Waterfall model
Feasibility Study

Requirement Analysis
And Specification

Design and
Specification
Coding and
Module Testing
 Document Driven Integration and
System Testing
 The phases don't overlap
Delivery
i.e. design can’t begin until
analysis is finished Maintenance

26
 Feasibility Study
 Main aim – determine whether developing the product is financially and
technically feasible
 Purpose is to produce a feasibility study document that evaluates the costs
and benefits of the proposed application
 Document should contain:

Definition of the problem

Formulation of different solution strategies

Alternative solutions and their expected benefits

Cost/benefit analysis performed – determine which solution is the best

Any solution – not feasible – due to high cost, resource
constraints etc

Required resources, costs, delivery dates in each proposed
27
alternative solutions
 Requirement Analysis and
Specification
(What
Studied by the todeveloper
customer and solve) .
 New project – much interaction is required between the
user and the developer
 Functional Requirements : what the product does
 Non- Functional Requirements : This may be classified
into the following categories: Reliability (availability,
integrity etc), accuracy, performance, operating constraints,
human-computer interface issues, portability issues etc
28
 Design Specification (How
to solve)
Description of architecture, module description
and relationships

High level /architectural design : Deals with

overall module structure and organization, rather
than the details of the modules

Detailed design : High level design is refined by

designing each module in detail

29
 Coding and Testing
Individual modules are tested before being delivered
to the customers
Alpha Testing : Carried out by the test team inside
the organization
 Beta Testing : Performed by a selected group of
friendly customers
 Acceptance Testing : Performed by the customer to
determine whether or not to accept the deliver of the
system
30
 Maintenance
Requires much more effort than development phase

Development : Maintenance effort = 40:60 ratio
 Involves performing any one/more of the following activities:

Corrective Maintenance : Correcting errors – not discovered
during the product development phase

Perfective Maintenance : Improving the implementation and
enhancing the functionalities according to customer’s
requirements

Adaptive Maintenance : Porting the SW to a new environment

31
 Strength and weakness
Strength of Waterfall model
It is document driven
 It is a good model to use when requirements are well understood and are quite
stable.
 Late changes to requirements or design are limited
 Implementing the product should be postponed until understanding the
objectives well.
Weakness of Waterfall model
 The model is inflexible for change as each phase results are frozen.
This model forces the software developer to completely fulfill the scope of each
phase before moving on.
Requirements must be well-reviewed early 32
 Cont…

Model is
Linear : Not possible. Need feedback
Rigid : results of each phase are frozen before proceeding to the next
phase
Monolithic : All planning is oriented to a single delivery date

When to use Waterfall model

 It works well for products that are well understood.
 It works well for projects that are repeats of earlier work.
 It is suitable with which the development team have a lot of
experience.
33
 Prototype model
Working prototype of the system should be built first
before the actual SW
Usually exhibiting limited functionalities, low reliability,

inefficient performance
In the case where requirements are not clear, Prototyping

may be the most suitable approach.

Such situations as the following require prototyping:

- Users do not have clearly defined procedures and

processes.
- Systems are complex and are not amenable to clear
analysis.
- Requirements are changing due to various reasons:34
(markets, regulations, uncommitted management,
 Cont…
Reasons for developing prototype:

 To illustrate the input data formats, messages, reports

etc – valuable mechanism to gain better understanding
of the customer’s needs

 Much easier for the customer to form opinion by

experimenting with a working model

 Helps to critically examine the technical issues

associated with the product development (efficiency of
the sorting algorithm, response time of a HW controller)
35
 Building a Prototype Model
Begins with requirements gathering
Developer + customer meet and define overall objectives
Identify the known requirements + mark ones which

needs further discussion

Quick design occurs
Prototype evaluated -->requirements refined
Prototype serves as a mechanism for identifying
software requirements

36
 Cont…
Requirements gathering

Quick design

Customer
Refine Requirements
suggestion Build prototype

Acceptance by user
Customer evaluation –
prototype

Design Iterative process

Implement, Test

Maintain 37
 Prototype model
 Actual system developed using classical waterfall model
 In development effort, requirement analysis and specification

phase becomes redundant.

 Prototype code – thrown away
 However, experience gained - helps in developing actual
system
 Prototype construction – additional cost. But, overall cost

lower than developed using Waterfall model

 Experimenting with prototype - user requirements properly

defined, technical issues satisfactorily resolved

 Minimizing change requests & redesign costs after the system

is delivered to customer
38
 Strengths and weakness
Strengths of the Prototyping Model
There is a much lower risk of confusion in terms of
miscommunication, misunderstanding user requirements or
system features.
New or unexpected user requirements can easily be
incorporated.
Prototyping development costs are offset by avoidance of the
usual high cost of rework and repair.
The prototype can be used as a formal specification because it
is tangible and well tried.

39
 Cont…
 Weaknesses of the Prototyping Model
Lack of early planning may cause project management
problems: unknown schedules, budgets and deliverables.
This Model results in potentially longer development cycles.
Seeing functions in working mode early in the life cycle
stimulates users into requesting additional functions.
When to use the Prototyping Model?
When requirements are not known at the beginning of the
project
When requirements are unstable and constantly changing
When users, for various reasons, do not have the capability of
expressing their requirements clearly.
When user requires proof of concept 40
 Evolutionary model
 Also known as successive version model
 System – first broken into several modules or functional
units – incrementally developed and delivered
 Developers first develop core modules – i.e., basic
requirements are addressed, but many supplementary
features remain undelivered
 Initial product skeleton – refined into increasing levels
of capability by adding new functionalities in successive
versions
41
 Cont…
 Each version is a functioning system capable of
performing some more useful work
 Core modules will be tested thoroughly
 Disadvantage : difficult to subdivide the problem
 Useful only for very large problems – where it is easier to
identify modules for incremental implementation
 Evolves over a period of time

42
Cont…

43
 Spiral model
•Focuses on identifying and eliminating high risk problems by careful
process design (Requirement analysis and Design Phases)
• Consequently, minimum and manageable risks filtered into
development phase
Development cycle is divided into 4 task areas
Requirement analysis – (identifies the objectives of the portion of the


product, in terms of qualities to achieve, identifies alternatives – design,

buy, reuse )
Risk analysis – (alternatives are evaluated and potential areas are
identified and dealt with)
Prototype and detailed designing


Construction, testing and implementation



44
 Cont…

1- Requirement Analysis
4 5 2 -Risk Analysis
3 -Prototype 1
1 2
4 - Software Requirement
Analysis
9
3 5 - Risk Analysis
6 6- Prototype 2
8 7-Detailed Design
7
8-Construction
9-Testing and Evaluation

45
 Cont…

Expects lot of rework in reverting to an earlier
phase and incorporating client feedback

Needs to perform risk analysis effectively

To eliminate losses arising due to uncertain dev
models, resource requirement, time etc

46
 Selection of a Process
Model
Following criteria can be considered:
Business goals of the organization - Indicates the mindset of an organization

 Past history of developing projects in accordance with well defined plans

– Waterfall
 If it is used to work in an experimental and constant feedback mode –
Prototype
Expected size of the project
 Large size, customers expect all the features at the first delivery -
Waterfall
 Customers want to start unit testing – Evolutionary (Incremental)
 Size is doubtful – Prototype/Spiral (These models help to develop projects
with vague and uncertain project size) 47
 Cont…
Customer needs and project requirements
 Customer needs and requirements – certain and approved –
waterfall
 Customer needs and requirements – uncertain and likely to
change in the future –Spiral / Prototype/ Incremental

Availability of funds and development staff

 Adequate resources at the start of the project – Waterfall /
Prototype
 Expecting additional funds and resources – Incremental / Spiral
Risks perceived in the project
 Risks and impacts are minimum – Waterfall / Incremental
model
 Risks and impacts are high – Spiral model 48
 Comparison of Process
Strengths Models
Weaknesses Types of projects
Waterfall 
Requirements frozen 
For well understood

Simple early problems

Easy to execute

Disallows changes 
Short duration

Cycle time too long project

May choose outdated 
Automation of
HW technology
existing manual

User feedback not system
allowed
Prototyping 
Front heavy process 
Systems with novice

Helps in 
Possible higher cost users
requirements 
Disallows later 
When uncertainties
refinement changes in

Reduces risk
requirements

Lead to a better 
When UI very
system
important
49
 Advantages of Software
Process
SW Process models have a twofold effect :
Provide guidance to software engineers on the order in
which the various technical activities should be carried
out within a project
Provide a framework for managing development and
maintenance- enable to estimate resources, define
intermediate milestones, monitor progress etc

50
 Difficulties of Software
The software process Process
is the way in which we produce
software.
Why is it difficult to improve software process ?

• Not enough time

• Lack of knowledge
• Wrong motivations
• Insufficient commitment

51
 Software Metrics
A software metric is a measure of software characteristics
which are measurable or countable.
Software metrics are valuable for many reasons, including
measuring software performance, planning work items,
measuring productivity, and many other uses.
Software metrics can be classified into two types as follows:
1.Product Metrics
2.Process Metrics

52
 Software Metrics
1. Product Metrics: These are the measures of various
characteristics of the software product. The two important
software characteristics are:
 Size and complexity of software.
 Quality and reliability of software.
These metrics can be computed for different stages of SDLC.
2. Process Metrics: These are the measures of various
characteristics of the software development process. For
example, the efficiency of fault detection. They are used to
measure the characteristics of methods, techniques, and tools
that are used for developing software.
53
 Types of Software Metrics
Internal metrics: Internal metrics are the metrics used for
measuring properties that are viewed to be of greater importance
to a software developer. For example, Lines of Code (LOC)
measure.
External metrics: External metrics are the metrics used for
measuring properties that are viewed to be of greater importance
to the user, e.g., portability, reliability, functionality, usability,
etc.
Hybrid metrics: Hybrid metrics are the metrics that combine
product, process, and resource metrics. For example, cost per FP
where FP stands for Function Point Metric.
Project metrics: Project metrics are the metrics used by the
project manager to check the project's progress.

54
 Advantages of Software
 For analysis, comparison, and critical study of different
Metrics
programming language concerning their characteristics.
 In comparing and evaluating the capabilities and productivity
of people involved in software development.
 In the preparation of software quality specifications.
 In the verification of compliance of software systems
requirements and specifications.
 In making inference about the effort to be put in the design
and development of the software systems.
 In getting an idea about the complexity of the code.
 In taking decisions regarding further division of a complex
module is to be done or not.
 In guiding resource manager for their proper utilization.
 In comparison and making design tradeoffs between software
development and maintenance cost and etc.
55
 Disadvantages of
Software
 The application Metrics
of software metrics is not always easy, and in
some cases, it is difficult and costly.
 The verification and justification of software metrics are based
on historical/empirical data whose validity is difficult to
verify.
 These are useful for managing software products but not for
evaluating the performance of the technical staff.
 The definition and derivation of Software metrics are usually
based on assuming which are not standardized and may
depend upon tools available and working environment.
 Most of the predictive models rely on estimates of certain
variables which are often not known precisely.

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 End of Chapter
One
Don’t forget to start your project

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