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Mechanics of Materials, Eighth Edition

Chapter 1

Introduction – Concept of Stress

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Concept of Stress
• The main objective of the study of the mechanics of materials is
to provide the future engineer with the means of analyzing and
designing various machines and load bearing structures.
• Both the analysis and design of a given structure involve the
determination of stresses and deformations. This chapter is
devoted to the concept of stress.

2
Review of Statics
• The structure is designed to support a
30 kN load.
• The structure consists of a boom AB
and rod BC joined by pins (zero
moment connections) at the junctions
and supports.
• Perform a static analysis to determine
the reaction forces at the supports and
the internal force in each structural
member.

Figure 1.1 Boom used to support a 30-kN

load.

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3
Structure Free-Body Diagram
• Structure is detached from supports, and the
loads and reaction forces are indicated to
produce a free-body diagram.
• Conditions for static equilibrium:

Figure 1.2 Free-body diagram of boom

showing Applied load and reaction forces.

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4
Structure Free-Body Diagram
• Structure is detached from supports, and the
loads and reaction forces are indicated to
produce a free-body diagram.
• Conditions for static equilibrium:

M C 0  Ax 0.6 m   30 kN 0.8 m 

Ax 40 kN

F x 0 Ax  C x
Cx  Ax  40 kN

F y 0  Ay  C y  30 kN 0
Ay  C y 30 kN
Figure 1.2 Free-body diagram of boom • Ay and Cy cannot be determined from these
showing Applied load and reaction forces.
equations.

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5
Component Free-Body Diagram
• In addition to the complete structure, each
component must satisfy the conditions for
static equilibrium.
• Consider a free-body diagram of the boom
AB:

Figure 1.3 Free-body

diagram of member AB freed
from structure.

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Component Free-Body Diagram
• In addition to the complete structure, each
component must satisfy the conditions for
static equilibrium.
• Consider a free-body diagram of the boom
AB:
M B 0  Ay 0.8 m 
Ay 0

substitute into the structure equilibrium

equation
C y 30 kN
Figure 1.3 Free-body
diagram of member AB freed • Results:
from structure.
A 40 kN  Cx 40 kN  C y 30 kN 

Reaction forces are directed along the

boom and rod.
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Method of Joints
• Joints must satisfy the conditions for static
equilibrium which may be expressed in the
form of a force triangle:

 FB 0
FAB FBC 30 kN
 
4 5 3
Figure 1.4 Free-body diagram of boom’s
joint B and associated force triangle. FAB 40 kN FBC 50 kN

• The boom and rod are 2-force members, i.e.,

the members are subjected to only two
forces, which are applied at the ends of the
members.
• For equilibrium, the forces must be parallel
to an axis between the force application
Figure 1.5 Free-body diagrams of two-force
points, equal in magnitude and in opposite
members AB and BC. directions.
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Stress Analysis
Can the structure safely support the 30 kN load if rod
BC has a diameter of 20 mm?

• From a statics analysis.

FAB = 40 kN (compression)
FBC = 50 kN (tension)
dBC = 20 mm • At any section through member BC, the internal
Figure 1.1 Boom used to support a 30-kN load. force is 50 kN with a force intensity or stress of,

P 50 103 N
 BC   -6 2
159 MPa
A 314 10 m
• From the material properties for steel, the
allowable stress is,
σall = 165 Mpa

• Conclusion: the strength of member BC is

Figure 1.7 Axial force represents the adequate.
resultant of distributed elementary forces.
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Design
• Design of new structures requires selection
of appropriate materials and component
dimensions to meet performance
requirements.
• For reasons based on cost, weight,
availability, etc., the choice is made to
construct the rod from aluminum (σall= 100
MPa). What is an appropriate choice for the
rod diameter?

Figure 1.1 Boom used to support a 30-

kN load.

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10
Design
• Design of new structures requires selection
of appropriate materials and component
dimensions to meet performance
requirements.
• For reasons based on cost, weight,
availability, etc., the choice is made to
construct the rod from aluminum (σall= 100
MPa). What is an appropriate choice for the
rod diameter?
P P 50 103 N
 all  A  500 10 6 m 2
A  all 6
100 10 Pa
d2
Figure 1.1 Boom used to support a 30- A 
4
kN load.
4A 4 500 10 6 m 2 
d  2.52 10 2 m 25.2 mm
 
• An aluminum rod 26 mm or more in
diameter is adequate.
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11
Axial Loading: Normal Stress
• The resultant of the internal forces for an axially
loaded member is normal to a section cut
perpendicular to the member axis.

• The force intensity on that section is defined as

the normal stress.

F P
Figure 1.9 Small area ΔA, at an arbitrary cross   lim  ave 
A  0 A A
section point carries/axial ΔF in this member.

• The normal stress at a particular point may not be

equal to the average stress but the resultant of the
stress distribution must satisfy

P  ave A dF  dA

A

• The actual distribution of stresses is statically

indeterminate, i.e., can not be found from statics
Figure 1.10 Stress distributions at different alone.
sections along axially loaded member.
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12
Centric & Eccentric Loading
• A uniform distribution of stress in a section infers
that the line of action for the resultant of the
internal forces passes through the centroid of the
section.
• A uniform distribution of stress is only possible if
the line of action of the concentrated loads P and P 
passes through the centroid of the section
considered. This is referred to as centric loading.
Figure 1.12 Centric loading having resultant forces
passing through the centroid of the section. • If a two-force member is eccentrically loaded,
then the resultant of the stress distribution in a
section must yield an axial force and a moment.
• The stress distributions in eccentrically loaded
members cannot be uniform or symmetric.

Figure 1.13 An example of simple eccentric loading.

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13
Shearing Stress
• Forces P and P  are applied transversely to
the member AB.
• Corresponding internal forces act in the
plane of section C and are called shearing
forces.
• The resultant of the internal shear force
distribution is defined as the shear of the
Figure 1.14 Opposing transverse loads creating shear section and is equal to the load P.
on member AB.
• The corresponding average shear stress is,
P
 ave 
A
• Shear stress distribution varies from zero at
the member surfaces to maximum values
that may be much larger than the average
value.
• The shear stress distribution cannot be
Figure 1.15 This shows the resulting internal shear
assumed to be uniform.
force on a section between transverse forces. Access the text alternative for slide images.

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Shearing Stress Examples
Single Shear Double Shear

Figure 1.16 Bolt subject to single shear. Figure 1.18 Bolt subject to double shear.

Figure 1.19 (a) Diagram of bolt in double shear; (b) section

Figure 1.17 (a) Diagram of bolt in single shear; (b) section
K  K ′ and L  L′ of the bolt.
E  E′ of the bolt

P F P F
 ave    ave  
A A Access the text alternative for slide images. A 2A
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Bearing Stress in Connections
• Bolts, rivets, and pins create stresses on the points
of contact or bearing surfaces of the members
they connect.
• The resultant of the force distribution on the
surface is equal and opposite to the force exerted
on the pin.
• Corresponding average force intensity is called
Figure 1.20 Equal and opposite forces between the bearing stress,
plate and bolt, exerted over bearing surfaces.

P P
b  
A td

Figure 1.21 Dimensions for calculating

bearing stress area.
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Stress Analysis & Design Example
• Would like to determine the stresses in the
members and connections of the structure
shown.
• From a statics analysis:
FAB = 40 kN (compression)
FBC = 50 kN (tension)
• Must consider maximum normal stresses in
AB and BC, and the shearing stress and
bearing stress at each pinned connection.

Figure 1.22 Components of boom used

to support 30 kN load.
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17
Rod & Boom Normal Stresses
• The rod is in tension with an axial force of 50 kN.
• At the rod center, the average normal stress in the
circular cross-  A 314 10 6
m2 
section
is σBC = +159 MPa.
• At the flattened rod ends, the smallest cross-
sectional area occurs at the pin centerline,

• The boom is in compression with an axial force of

40 kN and average normal stress of −26.7 M Pa.
Figure 1.22 (partial)
• The sections of minimum area at A and B are not
under stress, since the boom is in compression,
and therefore pushes on the pins.

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Rod & Boom Normal Stresses
• The rod is in tension with an axial force of 50 kN.
• At the rod center, the average normal stress in the
circular cross-  A 314 10 6
m2 
section
is σBC = +159 MPa.
• At the flattened rod ends, the smallest cross-
sectional area occurs at the pin centerline,

A 20 mm 40 mm  25 mm  300 10  6 m 2

P 50 103 N
 BC , end   6 2
167 MPa
A 300 10 m

• The boom is in compression with an axial force of

40 kN and average normal stress of −26.7 M Pa.
Figure 1.22 (partial)
• The sections of minimum area at A and B are not
under stress, since the boom is in compression,
and therefore pushes on the pins.

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Pin Shearing Stresses 1

• The cross-sectional area for pins at A, B, and C is,

2
 25 mm  6
A  r  
2
 49110 m
2

 2 

• The force on the pin at C is equal to the force

exerted by the rod BC is,
Figure 1.23 Diagrams of the single shear pin at C.

• The pin at A is in double shear with a total force

equal to the force exerted by the boom AB,

Figure 1.24 Free-body diagrams of the double shear pin at A.

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Pin Shearing Stresses 1

• The cross-sectional area for pins at A, B, and C is,

2
 25 mm  6
A  r  
2
 49110 m
2

 2 

• The force on the pin at C is equal to the force

exerted by the rod BC is,
Figure 1.23 Diagrams of the single shear pin at C.
P 50 103 N
 C , ave   102 MPa
A 49110 6 m 2

• The pin at A is in double shear with a total force

equal to the force exerted by the boom AB,

P 20 103 N
 A, ave   40.7 MPa
A 49110 6 m 2

Figure 1.24 Free-body diagrams of the double shear pin at A.

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Pin Shearing Stresses 2

• Divide the pin at B into sections to determine

the section with the largest shear force,
PE = 15 kN
PG = 25 kN (largest)

• Evaluate the corresponding average shearing

stress,

Figure 1.25 Free-body diagrams for

various sections at pin B.
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22
Pin Shearing Stresses 2

• Divide the pin at B into sections to determine

the section with the largest shear force,
PE = 15 kN
PG = 25 kN (largest)

• Evaluate the corresponding average shearing

stress,

PG 25 103 N
 B , ave   6 2
50.9 MPa
A 49110 m

Figure 1.25 Free-body diagrams for

various sections at pin B.
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23
Pin Bearing Stresses
To determine the bearing stress at A in the
boom AB, we have t = 30 mm and d = 25 mm,

To determine the bearing stress at A in the

bracket, we have t = 2(25 mm) = 50 mm and
d = 25 mm,

Figure 1.22 (partial)

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24
Pin Bearing Stresses
To determine the bearing stress at A in the
boom AB, we have t = 30 mm and d = 25 mm,

P 40 kN
b   53.3 MPa
td 30 mm 25 mm 

To determine the bearing stress at A in the

bracket, we have t = 2(25 mm) = 50 mm and
d = 25 mm,
P 40 kN
b   32.0 MPa
td 50 mm 25 mm 

Figure 1.22 (partial)

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25
Stress in Two Force Members
• Axial forces on a two force member
result in only normal stresses on a
plane cut perpendicular to the
member axis.
• Transverse forces on bolts and pins
result in only shear stresses on the
plane perpendicular to bolt or pin
axis.
Figure 1.26 Axial forces on a two-force member. (a) Section
plane perpendicular to member away from load application. (b) • Axial or transverse forces may
Equivalent force diagram models of resultant force acting at
centroid and uniform normal stress.
produce both normal and shear
stresses with respect to a plane other
than one cut perpendicular to the
member axis.

Figure 1.27 (a) Diagram of a bolt from a single shear joint with a section plane normal to the
bolt. (b) Equivalent force diagram model of the resultant force acting at the section centroid and
the uniform average shear stress.
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Stress on an Oblique Plane
• Pass a section through the member forming
an angle θ with the normal plane.
• From equilibrium conditions, the distributed
forces (stresses) on the plane must be
equivalent to the force P.
• Resolve P into components normal and
tangential to the oblique section,
F  P cos  V  P sin 
• The average normal and shear stresses on the
oblique plane are,
F P cos  P
   cos 2 
Figure 1.28 Oblique section through a two-force member. (a) A A0 A0
Section plane made at an angle θ to the member normal plane, (b)
Free-body diagram of left section with internal resultant force P.
cos 
(c) Free-body diagram of resultant force resolved into components V P sin  P
F and V along the section plane’s normal and tangential directions,    sin  cos 
respectively. (d) Free-body diagram with equivalent as normal A A0 A0
stress, σ, and shearing stress, τ.
cos 
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27
Maximum Stresses
• Normal and shearing stresses on an oblique plane,

P P
 cos 2    sin  cos 
A0 A0

• The maximum normal stress occurs when the

reference plane is perpendicular to the member
axis,
P
m    0
A0

• The maximum shear stress occurs for a plane at

+ 45o with respect to the axis,

P P
m  sin 45 cos 45   
A0 2 A0
Figure 1.29 Selected stress results for axial
loading. Access the text alternative for slide images.

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Stress Under General Loadings
• A member subjected to a general
combination of loads is cut into two
segments by a plane passing through Q.
• The distribution of internal stress
components may be defined as,
F x
Figure 1.30 Multiple loads on a general body.  x lim
A  0 A

Vyx Vzx
 xy lim  xz lim
A  0 A A  0 A

• For equilibrium, an equal and opposite

internal force and stress distribution must
be exerted on the other segment of the
member.
Figure 1.31 (a) Resultant shear and normal forces, V x and F x ,
acting on small area ∆A at point Q. (b) Forces on
∆A resolved into force in coordinate directions.
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State of Stress 1

Figure 1.35 Positive resultant forces on a small element at point Q resulting from a state of general stress.

Figure 1.36 Free-body diagram of small element at Q viewed on projected plane perpendicular to z′  axis.
Resultant forces on positive and negative z′ faces (not shown) act through the z′  axis, thus do not contribute to the moment
about that axis.
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State of Stress 2

• Stress components are defined for the planes cut parallel to the x, y and z
axes. For equilibrium, equal and opposite stresses are exerted on the hidden
planes.
• The combination of forces generated by the stresses must satisfy the
conditions for equilibrium:
 Fx  Fy  Fz 0
M x  M y  M z 0

• Consider the moments about the z axis:

M z 0  xy A a   yx A a
 xy  yx
similarly,  yz  zy and  yz  zy
• Only six components of stress are required to define the complete state of stress.

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Factor of Safety
Structural members or machines Factor of safety considerations:
must be designed such that the
• uncertainty in material properties.
working stresses are less than the
ultimate strength of the material. • uncertainty of loadings.
• uncertainty of analyses.
• number of loading cycles.
FS Factor of safety • types of failure.
u ultimate stress • maintenance requirements and
FS  
 all allowable stress deterioration effects.
• importance of member to integrity of
whole structure.
• risk to life and property.
• influence on machine function.

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