Content

1.Introduction
2. Material and Energy Balances
3. Fluid-Flow
4. Heat-Transfer
5. Drying
6. Mechanical unit operation
1. Basic principles of food process

The study of process is an attempt to combine all forms of

physical processing into a small number of basic operations,
which are called unit operations.

•Important unit operation in the food industry are:

Fluid flow
Heat transfer
Drying

•
Evaporation
Contact equilibrium processes (which include distillation, extraction,
gas absorption, crystallization, and membrane processes), mechanical
separation (which include absorption, crystallization and membrane
process)
Mechanical separations (which include filtration, centrifugation,
sedimentation and sieving), size reduction and mixing
Conservation of mass and energy

The law of conservation of mass states that mass can neither be

created nor destroyed
Thus in a processing plant, the total mass of material entering the plant
must equal the total mass of material leaving the plant, less any
accumulation left in the plant.
If there is no accumulation, then the simple rule holds that what goes
in must come out.
Similarly all material entering a unit operation must in due course leave
For example

• When milk is being fed into a centrifuge to separate it into skim milk and cream
under the law of conservation of mass the total number of kilograms of material
(milk) entering the centrifuge per minute must equal the total number of kilograms
of material(skim milk and cream) that leave the centrifuge per minute.
• Similarly, the law of conservation of mass applies to each component in the entering
materials,
• For example, considering the butter fat in the milk entering the centrifuge, the
weight of butter fat entering the centrifuge per minute must be equal to the weight of
butter fat leaving the centrifuge per minute.
• A similar relationship will hold for the other component, proteins, milk sugars and
so on
• The law of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed.

• The total energy in the materials entering the processing plant plus the Energy added in
the plant must equal the total energy leaving the plant.

Dimensions and units

All engineering deals with definite and measured quantities and so depends on the
making of measurement

It has been found from experience that every day engineering quantities can all be
expressed in terms of a relatively small number of dimensions.

These dimensions are length, mass, time and temperature.

Dimensions are represented as symbols by: Length [L], Mass [M], time[t] and force[F]

Note that these are enclosed in square brackets: this is the conventional way of
expressing dimensions
 2. Material and Energy Balances

Material balance calculations are used in:

• Preparation of formulas

• Determination final compositions after blending

• Calculation of yields
Basic principle of material balance calculations

“Based on the principles of the law of «conservation of mass.»

Inflow = outflow + accumulation

Accumulation means, the mass or energy absorbed or stored in a
process
In a system where the process is taken place;

• If the state is steady,

Inflow stream= out flow stream
The accumulation is equal to zero
Concentration of components in the system doesn’t changes with time

If the state is unsteady

Inflow stream= outflow stream + accumulation
Accumulation is different from zero
Concentration of components in the system changes with time
• Before preparing the material balance;

 First the process is put together in a flow diagram

 Then, the boundaries of the system (process) is determined

 A system is described by a boundary, either real or imaginary

 The boundary of a system can be real, such as the walls of a tank

 The boundary may be stationary or movable

For example, the system boundary can include a tank (stationary), piping and a valve (movable)

 A system boundary may even enclose an entire food processing system.

• In the process of evaporation of milk, milk passes to the calendria and thick
consistent milk comes out leaving the moisture as vapour form

• The mass balance around the evaporator will be;

• If the unit operation, whatever its nature is seen as a whole it may be represented
diagrammatically as a box, as shown in the Fig below

• The mass and energy going into the box must balance with the mass and energy
coming out.
.

• The law of conservation of mass leads to what is called a mass or a

material balance.
• Mass In = Mass Out + Mass Stored
• Raw Materials = Products + Wastes + Stored
Materials.
• ∑mR = ∑mP + ∑mW + ∑mS, (where S (sigma)
denotes the sum of all terms).
• ∑mR = mR1 + mR2 + mR3 +..... = Total Raw
Materials.
• ∑mP = mP1 + mP2 + mP3 + .... = Total Products.
∑mW = mW1 + rnW2 + mW3 + .... = Total Waste
Products.
• If there are no chemical changes occurring in the plant, the law of conservation of
mass will apply also to each component, so that for component A:

• mA in entering materials = mA in the exit materials + mA stored in plant.

Component balance:

• The components of a material is expressed either as the fraction of the total mass
or as the ratio of the mass of a single component to that of other component of the
material.
• If a mixture consists of components a and b, the mass fraction of
component a is expressed as;

Where, Ma and Mb are the mass of

component a and b respectively
Problem 1: How much of concentrated milk of 35% total solid is required to produce
150 kg/h of milk powder of 95% total solid?

Solution:
Step 3
Write the component and mass balance
I, overall mass balance
X=Y + 150 kg/h
ii. Component balance (i.e. total solid balance)
X*35/100=150*95/100
X= 407.14kg/h
in the overall mass balance
Y=x-150kg/h
Y=407.14 kg/h-150kg/h
Y=257.14 kg/h
Problem 2. Constituent balance of milk

• Skim milk is prepared by the removal of some of the fat from whole milk. This skim
milk is found to contain 90.5% water, 3.5% protein, 5.1% carbohydrate, 0.1% fat and
0.8% ash. If the original milk contained 4.5% fat, calculate its composition assuming
that fat only was removed to make the skim milk and that there are no losses in
processing.
Solution
• Basis: 100 kg of skim milk. This contains, therefore, 0.1 kg of fat.
Let the fat which was removed from it to make skim milk be x kg.
• Total original fat = (x + 0.1 ) kg
• Total original mass = (100 + x) kg
• and as it is known that the original fat content was 4.5% so
• x + 0.1 = 0.045 (100 + x)
• whence x + 0.1 = 0.045(100 + x), x = 4.6 kg
Energy balance
• Just as mass is conserved, so is energy conserved in food processing operations.
• The energy coming into a unit operation can be balanced with the energy
coming out and the energy stored.
• Energy In = Energy Out + Energy Stored
∑ER = ∑EP + ∑EW + ∑EL + ∑ES
• where:
• ∑ ER = ER1 + ER2 + ER3 + ….…. = Total Energy Entering
∑ EP = EP1 + EP2 + EP3 + …….. = Total Energy Leaving with Products
∑ EW = EW1 +EW2 + EW3 + …......= Total Energy Leaving with Waste Materials
∑ EL = EL1 + EL2 + EL3 + …….... = Total Energy Lost to Surroundings
∑ ES = ES1 + ES2 + ES3 + …..….. = Total Energy Stored
• Energy balances are often complicated because forms of energy can be
interconverted, for example mechanical energy to heat energy, but overall the
quantities must balance.
 3. Fluid-Flow
• A fluid is a material substance that can flow.

• A fluid cannot sustain a shearing stress when at rest.

• i.e. they lack the ability of solids to offer permanent resistance to a deforming force.

• Indeed, it is the inability of fluids at rest to resist shearing stresses that gives them their
characteristic ability to flow, i.e. change shape.

• Fluids flow under the action of forces, deforming continuously for as long as the force is
applied
• Many raw materials for foods and many finished foods are in the form of fluids

• These fluids have to be transported and processed in the factory

• Food technologists must be familiar with the principles that govern the flow of
fluids, and with the machinery and equipment that is used to handle fluids

The study of fluids can be divided into:

 The study of fluids at rest - fluid statics, and
The study of fluids in motion - fluid dynamics
• Fluids in the food industry vary considerably in their properties.
They include such materials as:

Thin liquids - milk, water, fruit juices

Thick liquids - syrups, honey, oil, jam

Gases - air, nitrogen, carbon dioxide

 Fluidized solids - grains, flour, peas

FLUID STATICS

• A very important property of a fluid at rest is the pressure exerted by that fluid on
its surroundings

• Pressure is defined as force exerted on an area

• F = mg = V ρ g

• where F is the force exerted, m is the mass, g the acceleration due to gravity, V the
volume and ρ (the Greek letter rho) the density

• For a mass to remain in equilibrium, the force it exerts due to gravity must be
resisted by some supporting medium
• Consider a horizontal plane in a fluid at a depth Z below the surface, as illustrated
in Fig.below
F = APs + Z ρ Ag

• where F is the total force exerted on the area A and Ps is the pressure above the
surface of the fluid (e.g. it might be atmospheric pressure). Further, since total
pressure P is the total force per unit area:
• P = F/A =Ps + Z ρ g
FLUID DYNAMICS

In most processes fluids have to be moved so that the study of fluids in motion is
important

Problems on the flow of fluids are solved by applying the principles of

conservation of mass and energy

In any system, or in any part of any system, it must always be possible to write a
mass balance and an energy balance

The motion of fluids can be described by writing appropriate mass and energy
balances
Mass Balance

• Consider part of a flow system, such for example as that shown in Fig. 2.

• This consists of a continuous pipe that changes its diameter, passing into and out of a
unit of processing plant, which is represented by a tank.

• The processing equipment might be, for example, a pasteurizing heat exchanger.
Also in the system is a pump to provide the energy to move the fluid.
Change in fluid flow rates
• Figure .2. Mass and energy balance in fluid flow
• In the flow system of Fig. 2. we can apply the law of conservation of mass to
obtain a mass balance
• Once the system is working steadily, and if there is no accumulation of fluid in
any part the system, the quantity of fluid that goes in at section 1 must come out at
section 2
• ρ 1A1v1 = ρ 2A2v2

• If the fluid is incompressible ρ 1 = ρ 2 so in this case

Continuity equation
A1v1=A2v2 for (ρ1=ρ2)
incompressible fluid
Whole milk …Cream … Skimmed
milk
• Once the system is working steadily, and if there is no accumulation of
fluid in any part the system, the quantity of fluid that goes in at
section 1 must come out at section 2. If the area of the pipe at sec 1 is
A1, corresponding values at sec 2 are A2,
•.

• 1, 2, 3 denote respectively raw milk, skim milk and cream.

• Since volumes will be conserved, the total leaving volumes
will equal the total entering volume and so
A1v1 = A2v2+ A3v3 and from this equation
 B. Energy Balance
• In addition to the mass balance, the other important quantity we
must consider in the analysis of fluid flow, is the energy balance.
• The next figure, consider the changes in the total energy of unit mass
of fluid (1kg) between section 1 and section 2.
First, there are changes in the intrinsic energy of fluid:
(1) Potential energy.
(2) Kinetic energy.
(3) Pressure energy
Second, there may be energy interchange with the surroundings:
(4) Energy lost to the surroundings due to friction.
(5) Mechanical energy added by pumps.
(6) Heat energy in heating or cooling the fluid.
In the analysis of the energy balance, energies are measured from a
datum or reference level.
Intrinsic Energy
1. Potential energy
• Fluid maintained above the datum level can perform work in
returning to the datum level.
• The quantity of work it can perform is calculated from the product of
the distance moved and the force resisting movement; the force of
gravity.
• This quantity of work is called potential energy of the fluid.
• Thus the potential energy of 1 kg of fluid at a height of Z (m) above its
datum is given by Ep.
Ep = Zg (J)
2. Kinetic energy
• Fluid that is in motion can perform work in coming to rest.
• This is equal to the work required to bring a body from rest up to the same velocity, which can be
calculated from the basic equation
v2 = 2as, therefore s = v2/2a
where v (ms-1) is the final velocity of the body, a (ms-2) is the acceleration and s (m) is the distance the
body has moved.
• Also work done
W = F x s, and from Newton's Second Law, for m kg of fluid so
F= ma
Ek = W= mas = mav2/2a = mv2/2
• The energy of motion, or kinetic energy, for 1kg of fluid is

Ek = v2/2 (J)
3. Pressure energy
• Fluids exert a pressure on their surroundings.
• If the volume of a fluid is decreased, the pressure exerts a force that must be overcome and
so work must be done in compressing the fluid.
• Conversely, fluids under pressure can do work as the pressure is released.
• If the fluid is considered as being in a cylinder of cross-sectional area A(m2) and a piston
is moved a distance L (m) by the fluid against the pressure P (Pa) the work done is PAL
joules.
• The quantity of the fluid performing this work is ALρ (kg).
• Therefore the pressure energy that can be obtained from 1kg of fluid (that is the work that
can be done by this kg of fluid) is
Er = PAL/ALρ = P/ρ (J)
Er = P/ρ (J)
Extrinsic Energy
4. Friction Loss
• When a fluid moves through a pipe or through fittings, it encounters
frictional resistance and energy can only come from energy contained
in the fluid and so frictional losses provide a drain on the energy
resources of the fluid.
• The actual magnitude of the losses depends upon the nature of the
flow and of the system through which the flow takes place.
• In the system of above figure, let the energy lost by 1 kg fluid
between section 1 and section 2, due to friction, be equal to Ef (J).
5. Mechanical energy
• If there is a machine putting energy into the fluid stream, such as a
pump the mechanical energy by the pump per kg of fluid must be
accounted.
• Let the pump energy added to 1 kg fluid be Ec (J).
• In some cases a machine may extract energy from the fluid, such as in
the case of a water turbine.
a. Bernouilli's Equation,
conservation of energy
• Overall energy to be considered are E , Ek, Er, Ef, Ec.
p
• Energy balance for the fluid between section 1 and section 2 of the above
figure.
• The total energy of 1 kg of fluid entering at section 1 is equal to the
total energy of 1 kg of fluid leaving at section 2, less the energy added
by the pump, plus friction energy lost in travelling between the two
sections.
Ep1 + Ek1+ Er1 = Ep2 + Ek2 + Er2 + Ef -Ec
• In the special case where no mechanical energy is added and for a
frictionless fluid,
Ec = Ef = 0, and we have

Since this is true for any sections of the pipe the equation is
Zg + v2/2 + P/ρ = k (Bernouilli's equation), k is constant
The foundations of fluid mechanics.
It is a mathematical expression, for fluid flow, of the principle of
conservation of energy and it covers many situations of practical
importance.