Chapter 4: Network and the

effect of using them

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 Network and the effect of using them
 networks:
 routers
 common network devices – NICs, hubs, switches,
bridges and
 Wi-Fi and Bluetooth
 cloud computing
 intranets, extranets and the internet
 LANs, WLANs and WANs
 network issues and communication:
 security (including passwords, types of
authentication)
 anti-malware
 electronic conferencing

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Network and the effect of using them

3
 What is network?
 A network is two or more computers, or other electronic devices, connected together so
that they can exchange data.

Networks

4
 Common network devices and terms
 Four important terms
 network interface card (NIC)
 media access control (MAC) address
 internet protocol (IP) address
 data packet

5
 Network interface card (NIC)
 A network interface card (NIC) is needed to allow a device to connect to a network.
 An NIC turns binary data into an electrical signal that allows access to a network.
 The NIC is usually integrated into the motherboard on most modern computers.
 Each NIC is given a unique hardwired (or hard-coded) media access control (MAC)
address at the manufacturing stage.
 When installed in a device, this uniquely identifies that device.
 Any computer that is connected to a network, needs to have NIC.
 But, some computers such as laptops, they have two kinds of NIC:
 One for wired connections (NIC)
 Another for wireless connections. (WNIC)

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 Media access control (MAC) address
 The media access control (MAC) address is a
number which uniquely identifies a device when it
is connected to a network.
 The MAC address is made up of 48 bits which are
shown as six groups of hexadecimal digits with the
general format:
 If the NIC card is replaced, the MAC address will
also change
 The physical address because it uniquely identifies Apple
a device
 MAC addresses are useful when trying to identify
network faults because they never change
the unique serial number of the device
 A more reliable method of identifying data senders
7
and data receivers on a network
 Internet protocol (IP) addresses
 Whenever a computer connects to the internet it is given an internet protocol (IP) address.
 This is usually assigned to the computer by the internet service provider (ISP)
 Internet protocols define the rules that must be agreed by senders and receivers of data
communicating through the internet.
 An IP address essentially identifies the location of a device on a network.
 There are two versions of IP: IPv4 and IPv6.
 IPv4 is based on 32 bits and the address is written as four groups of eight bits
 A newer version called IPv6 is now being used.
 This uses a 128-bit address, which take the form of eight groups of hex digits

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 Data packets
 Data is moved around networks in the form of data packets.
 Whenever a user sends some data, it is split up into a number of packets and each packet is
transmitted separately.
 Packets of data will usually have a header which contains:
 the sender’s IP address
 the receiver’s IP address
 the sequence/identity number of the packet
 the packet size
 how many data packets make up the whole message.
 It checks the destination IP address against the stored routing table, which allows the router to
determine the packet’s next step in the path.
 A data packet will pass through a number of routers before it reaches its final destination.
 All the information in the data packet headers allows the data packets to be reassembled in their
9
correct order, according to the sequence/identity number, by the receiving station.
 Sending email
• Application layer – e-mail application
• Presentation layer – compress the attachment
• Session layer – establish the connection with the recipient’s email
server
• Transport layer – the data is delivered by splitting it into smaller
packets and adding sequence numbers
• Network layer – Routing the packets over the internet
• Data link layer – add hardware address to the packets similar to
labeling the package with sender and receiver address.
• Physical layer – send the actual bits through cables or wireless
signals.
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 Receiving email
• Physical layer – receives the bits
• Data link layer – reads the hardware address
• Network layer – route the network to the correct network
• Transport layer – reassemble the packet
• Session layer – ensure the connection is maintained
• Presentation layer – decompresses the attachment
• Application layer – display the attachment to your frients.

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 Hubs
 Hubs are hardware devices that can have a number of
other devices connected to them.
 They are used primarily to connect devices together to
form a local area network (LAN), often in the same
building.
 A hub will take a data packet received at one of its ports
and broadcast it to every device connected to it.
 Because data packets are delivered to every device on
the network:
 hubs are not very secure because every device will receive
every data packet
 there will be unnecessary traffic on the network, which results
in reduced bandwidth.
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 Switches
 Switches are ‘intelligent’ versions of hubs.
 As with hubs, they connect a number of devices together to
form a LAN.
 However, unlike a hub, a switch stores the MAC addresses
of all devices on the network.
 Each port on the switch connected to a device will have a
matching MAC address (called a look-up table)
 Using the look-up table, a switch matches the MAC address
of an incoming data packet arriving at one of its ports, and
directs it to the correct device.
 None of the other devices will see this data packet.
 Consequently, switches are more secure than hubs (because
only the intended device is sent the data) and do not waste
bandwidth (because network traffic is reduced). 14
 Switches
 both a hub and a switch are used to connect devices in a LAN
 both hubs and switches use data packets
 hubs send data packets to every device on the network; whereas switches
send data packets to a specific device only
 security is lower with hubs than with switches
 a switch uses a look-up table to determine the destination device
 switches use MAC addresses to locate the destination device.

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 Bridges
 Bridges are devices that connect one LAN to another
LAN that uses the same protocol (communication rules).
 They are often used to connect together different parts of
a LAN so that they can function as a single LAN.
 Unlike routers, bridges cannot communicate with other
external networks, such as the internet.

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 Routers
 Routers are used to route data packets from one network
to another network, based on IP addresses.
 It can do this because each router has its own IP address.
 Routers are used to join a LAN to the internet.

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 Routers
 When a data packet is received at one of its
ports, the router inspects the IP address and
determines whether the data packet is meant
for its own network or for another, external
network.
 If the data packet is meant for its own
network, then the data packet is routed to the
local switch or hub.
 Otherwise, the data packet is transmitted to a
different router
 Many modern broadband ‘routers’ actually
combine the functions of a router and a
switch
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Comparison of routers and bridges

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 Wi-Fi and Bluetooth
 Both Wi-Fi and Bluetooth offer wireless communication between
devices.
 They both use electromagnetic radiation as the carrier of data
transmission.
 Bluetooth sends and receives radio waves in a band of 79 different
frequencies (known as channels).
 These are all centred on a frequency of 2.45 GHz.
 Devices using Bluetooth automatically detect and connect to each other,
but they do not interfere with other devices because each communicating
pair uses a different channel (from the 79 options).
 When a device wants to communicate, it picks one of the 79 channels at
random to pair with another device.
 If the channel is already being used, it randomly picks another channel. 20
 Wi-Fi and Bluetooth
 to minimise the risks of interference with other devices, the devices constantly change the
channels
 spread-spectrum frequency hopping
 Bluetooth uses key encryption to create a secure wireless personal area network (WPAN)
 Bluetooth is useful:
 when transferring data between two or more devices which are very close together
(less than 30 metres distance)
 when the speed of data transmission is not critical
 for low-bandwidth applications (for example, when sending music files from a mobile
phone to a headset).

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 Wi-Fi and Bluetooth
 Wi-Fi sends and receives radio waves in several different frequency bands – 2.4 GHz
and 5 GHz are the most common at the moment.
 Like Bluetooth, each band is also further split into channels.
 The 5GHz band has a faster data transfer rate but a shorter signal range.
 Wi-Fi is best suited to operating full-scale networks because it offers much faster data
transfer rates, better range and better security than Bluetooth.
 A Wi-Fi enabled device (such as a computer or smartphone) can access, for example,
the internet wirelessly at any access point (AP) or ‘hot spot’ up to 100 metres away

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Comparison of Wi-Fi and Bluetooth connectivity

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 Cloud computing (storage)
 Cloud computing is a method of data storage where data is
stored on remote servers – there may be thousands of servers in
many different locations.
 The same data is stored on more than one server in case of
maintenance or repair, allowing clients to access data at any
time.
 This is known as data redundancy.
 The physical environment of the cloud servers is owned and
managed by a hosting company.
 There are three common cloud storage systems:
 Public
 Private
 Hybrid
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 Advantages of cloud computing (storage)
 Customer/client files stored in the cloud can be accessed at any time, from any device,
anywhere in the world, as long as internet access is available.
 There is no need for a customer/client to carry an external storage device with them, or
even use the same computer, to store and retrieve information.
 The cloud provides the user with remote backup of data, with obvious advantages in the
event of data loss/disaster recovery on their own computer.
 If a customer/client has a failure of their hard disk or backup device, cloud storage will
allow recovery of their data.
 The cloud system offers almost unlimited storage capacity (at a price!)

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 Disadvantages of cloud computing (storage)
 Security aspects of storing data in the cloud.
 If the customer/client has a slow or unstable internet connection, they could have many
problems accessing or downloading their data/files.
 Costs can be high if a large storage capacity or high download/upload data transfer is
required
 The potential failure of the cloud storage company is always possible – this poses a risk of
loss of all backup data.

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 Disadvantages of cloud computing (storage)
 Several computer manufacturers (especially tablets and laptops) and mobile phone
manufacturers are encouraging customers to store or backup all their files on to cloud
storage.
 Users purchase cloud storage and can then access all their files
 You do not need to carry memory sticks around with you if you want to access your files away from home.
 You do not have to pay for large storage capacity on your computer/tablet or mobile phone.
 Because the cloud is controlled by external companies, they will ensure that your files are backed up and
therefore reduce the possibility of losing irreplaceable data.
 The ability to synchronise (sync) files ensures they are automatically updated cross all devices; this means
that the latest version of a file saved on a desktop computer, for example, is also available on other
devices, such as a smartphone.
 Cloud storage is also ideal for collaboration purposes; it allows several users to edit and collaborate on a
single file or document – there is no need to worry about tracking the latest version or which user made
the changes.

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 Data security using cloud storage/computing
 Companies that transfer vast amounts of confidential data from their own systems to a cloud
service provider are potentially relinquishing control of their own data security.
 This raises a number of questions:
 What physical security exists regarding the building where the data is housed?
 How good is the cloud service provider’s resistance to natural disasters or power cuts?
 What safeguards exist regarding personnel who work for the cloud service company?
 Can they use their authorisation codes to access confidential data for monetary purposes?

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 Data loss
 There is a risk that important and irreplaceable data could be lost from cloud storage
facilities.
 Actions from hackers (gaining access to accounts or pharming attacks, for example) could
lead to loss or corruption of data.
 Users need to be certain that sufficient safeguards exist to overcome these potentially very
harmful risks.
 On 2 April, a Mexican digital media company (called Cultura Colectiva) exposed 540
million Facebook accounts stored on one of their cloud servers; the data included user
profiles, user IDs, account names, likes and comments
 On 29 July, Capital One Bank (in the USA) had some of their cloud-based data hacked
exposing 80,000 bank account numbers, 140,000 social security numbers and over one
million government ID numbers.
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 Common network environments
 Common network environments are
 Extranets
 Intranets
 The internet

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 Network types
 local area network (LAN)
 wireless local area network (WLAN)
 wide area network (WAN).

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 Local area network (LAN)
 Local area networks (LANs) are usually within one building or geographically near each
other.
 A typical LAN will consist of a number of computers and devices (for example, printers)
which will be connected to hubs or switches.
 One of the hubs or switches will usually be connected to a router to allow the LAN to
connect to external networks, such as the internet.

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 Local area network (LAN)
 There are advantages of networking computers together using LANs:
 they allow the sharing of resources such as hardware and software
 they permit easy communication between users of the LAN
 they use a network administrator that ensures security and use of the LAN is constantly
monitored
 There are also disadvantages of networking computers using LANs:
 easier spread of viruses throughout the whole network
 queues for shared resources which can be frustrating
 slower access to external networks
 increased security risk when compared to stand-alone computers
 if the main server breaks down, in many types of network structures, the network will no
longer function properly.
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 Wireless local area network (WLAN)
 Wireless LANs (WLANs) are similar to LANs, but there are no wires or cables.
 In other words, they provide wireless network communications over fairly short distances
using radio or infrared signals instead of using cables.
 Devices, known as access points (APs), are connected into a wired network at fixed
locations.
 Because of the limited range, most commercial LANs need several APs to permit
uninterrupted wireless communications.
 The APs use either spread-spectrum technology or infrared, but this has a very short range
(about 1–2 metres) and is easily blocked, and therefore infrared has limited use.

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 Wireless local area network (WLAN)
 The AP receives and transmits data between the WLAN and the wired network structure.
 End-users access the WLAN through wireless LAN adapters which are built into their
devices.

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Wireless local area network (WLAN)

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 Wide area networks (WANs)
 Wide area networks (WANs) are used where computers or networks are situated a long
distance from each other geographically.
 As mentioned earlier, if a number of LANs are joined together using a router, then they can
form a WAN.
 The network of ATMs (automated teller machines) used by banks is one of the most
common examples of the use of a WAN.
 Because of the long distances between devices, WANs usually make use of some public
communications network (such as telephone lines or satellites), but they can use dedicated or
leased communication lines, which can be less expensive and also more secure (less risk of
hacking, for example).

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 Wide area networks (WANs)
 A typical WAN will consist of end systems and intermediate systems.
 The following is used as a guide for deciding the ‘size’ of a network:
 WAN: 100 km to over 1000 km
 MAN: 1 km to 100 km
 LAN: 10 m to 1000 m (1 km)

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 Security issues regarding data transfer
 Many aspects of security (such as hacking, phishing, pharming and viruses)
 This section covers some of the more general aspects of internet security, together with how
we use networks to communicate

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 Passwords
 Passwords are used in many instances when accessing the internet.
 For example:
 when accessing your email account
 when carrying out online banking
 accessing social networking sites.
 There are many more instances when you might need to type in a password and, in many
cases, a user ID.
 It is important that passwords are protected.

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 Passwords
 Some ways of doing this are described below:
 Run anti-spyware software to make sure that your passwords are not being relayed back
to whoever put the spyware on your computer
 Change passwords on a regular basis in case it has come into the possession of another
user illegally or accidentally.
 Passwords should not be easy to crack (e.g. your favourite colour, name of a pet or
favourite rock group); passwords are grouped as either strong (hard to crack or guess) or
weak (relatively easy to crack or guess).
 Strong passwords should contain:
 at least one capital letter
 at least one numerical value
 at least one other keyboard character (such as @, *, & etc.).
 An example of a strong password is: Sy12@#TT90kj=0
 An example of a weak password is: GREEN1 41
 Other authentication methods
 Passwords are one of the most common types of authentication (that is, a way of proving
your identity).
 This section will look at a number of other types of authentication:
 zero login
 biometrics
 magnetic stripes
 smart cards
 physical tokens
 electronic tokens.

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 Zero login and biometrics
 The Fast ID online (FIDO) Alliance and WWW Consortium (W3C) announced a new
technology standard that allows users to login to computer systems without the need to type
in a password.
 The mishandling of personal data over the years now means we can no longer regard data,
such as passwords, as being secret or protected
 Zero login essentially relies on devices being smart and secure enough to instantly recognise
a user by a number of features based on:
 biometrics
 behavioural patterns
 But there are certain disadvantages that need consideration:
 How do users know when they are being monitored?
 How do you know if and when you have been logged out?
 How well protected is it in reality?
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 Magnetic stripe cards
 Each particle can act as a north-pole or a south-pole (which corresponds to the two binary
values of 0 and 1)
 The stripe is read by swiping it through a card reader. Data such as name, ID number, sex,
and date of birth may be contained on a magnetic stripe when used as a security device to
allow entry to a building
 Access will only be allowed if the scanned data matches data in a database.
 Some ID cards also use a holographic image (hologram).
 These are designed to make forgery of the card more difficult.
 Holographic images change colour or appear to have a moving object as the image is viewed
from different angles.
 Because these are difficult to copy, it prevents somebody simply photocopying a card and
using it illegally.
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 Magnetic stripe cards
 Advantages of magnetic stripe cards
 They are easy to use.
 It is not an expensive technology.
 Magnetic cards can be remotely deactivated (if lost or stolen).
 The cards can be multi-purpose (for example, door key cards, network access cards or
used in vending machines to buy food or drink).
 Disadvantages of magnetic stripe cards
 Less secure than, for example, biometric methods (no encryption is used and the stripe
contents can be copied fairly easily).
 The cards wear out with a lot of use.
 Magnetic readers often fail to read the cards on first attempt.

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 Smart cards
 By inserting a tag (chip and antenna) into a security card, it can act as a smart contactless
card.
 The chip on the smart card can store data such as name, security number, sex, date of birth
and a PIN.
 Smart cards can therefore be used as a security device.
 If the card is in a wallet or a pocket as the owner of the card walks up to a security gate,
readers on either side of the gate quickly scan the security data stored on the RFID tag
embedded in the card.
 The user will then be invited to enter a PIN on the keypad.
 If all details match, then access will be allowed

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 Physical tokens
 A physical (or hardware) token is a form of authentication in the form of a physical, solid object.
 The user’s interaction with a login system is used to prove that the user has possession of the
token.
 Physical tokens contain internal clocks and when a PIN and other authentication details are
entered, then a one-time password (OTP) is generated.
 The OTP is shown on a small screen.
 The code changes on a regular basis and is usually only valid for less than a minute.
 This is a classic example of a multi-factor authentication method.
 There are two types of physical tokens:
 a disconnected physical token – this is the type described above, where a separate device is
used, requiring the user to key in data manually using a keypad
 a connected physical token – this type of token transmits the generated one-time password
directly to a computer through a USB connection; the user does not need to manually enter
data. 47
 Electronic tokens
 Electronic (software) tokens are software installed on a user’s device, such as a smartphone.
 Suppose a user wishes to log on to a website using their tablet computer.
 This website requires electronic tokens to be used to authenticate the user.
 The user has already installed the electronic token app on their smartphone.
 When the website requests the user to authenticate who they are, the user opens the app on
their smartphone.
 The app generates a one-time password (OTP) which is valid for less than a minute.
 The user enters this OTP when prompted by the website, together with some other form of
authentication, such as PIN, touch ID or face ID.

48
 Anti-malware software
 Anti-virus software should be loaded onto a computer and then run to allow all software and
devices to be scanned for viruses.
 Whenever data or software is downloaded or being transferred to another device, it is
essential that a virus check is carried out on that other device too.
 Running anti-virus software in the background on a computer will constantly check for virus
attacks.
 Although various types of anti-virus software work in different ways they all have the
following common features:
 They check software or files before they are run or loaded on a computer.
 Anti-virus software compares a possible virus against a database of known viruses.

49
 Anti-malware software
 They carry out heuristic checking – this is the checking of software for types of behaviour
that could indicate a possible virus; this is useful if software is infected by a virus not yet on
the database.
 Any possible files or programs which are infected are put into quarantine which:
 allows the virus to be automatically deleted, or
 allows the user to make the decision about deletion (it is possible that the user knows
that the file or program is not infected by a virus – this is known as a false positive and is
one of the drawbacks of anti-virus software).
 Anti-virus software needs to be kept up to date because new viruses are constantly being
discovered.
 Full system checks need to be carried out once a week, for example, because some viruses
lie dormant and would only be picked up by this full system scan.

50
 Electronic conferencing
 three types of electronic conferencing:
 video conferencing
 audio conferencing
 web conferencing

51
 Video Conferencing
• Hardware required
• Tv Screens/Monitors
• Speakers
• Microphone
• Webcam
• Video Conferencing System
• Characteristics
• Video conferencing is an alternative for face to face meetings between two or more people
• Allows both sound and video
• Participants of the video conference can be many miles apart or even in a different country
• Audio and video are real-time allowing users to interact with each other
• Uses
• Remote employee meetings
• Staff interviews
• Multi-person discussion
• Remote training
• Video conferencing has many uses that include:
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 Video Conferencing

• Advantages
• Convenience
• Cost saving
• Better for the environment
• Attendees do not have to travel to the event
• Anyone within the company can attend regardless of location
• Events can be held at short notice as travel is not required
• Allows other members outside of the organisation to attend easily without
having to visit on premises
• Some video conferencing software allows record and playback to allow
members to review the meeting
53
 Video Conferencing
• Disadvantages
• The initial purchase of equipment can be costly
• This can cause issues amongst employees when working across different time
zones
• Those using the system may need to be trained to use it effectively which can:
• Take time
• Be costly
• Video conferencing systems require a strong and stable network connection
• There can often be a delay in response times
• The time lag is caused by the image not being synchronised with the sound

• Poor picture/sound quality caused by the speed of connection/quality of the

hardware
54
 Worked example
• A motor car company has some designers based in London and some in
Beijing. The cost of travel between the two cities is very high, so when
they wish to meet to discuss new products they use video-conferencing.
The designers all have PCs with a keyboard and a mouse in order to
take part in video-conferencing.
a. Name three other devices used to input or output data which would
be needed to take part in the video-conference.[3]
• Three of:
• Webcam / video camera [1]
Speakers / headset / headphones [1]
Large monitor / television / data projector [1]
Microphone [1]
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 Worked example
• b. Describe three potential problems of the designers using video-conferencing
systems rather than meeting in either London or Beijing.[3]
• Three from:
• Time lag / lip sync caused by the image not being synchronised with the sound [1]
Poor picture quality caused by the speed of connection / quality of the hardware [1]
More likely to have poorer sound quality caused by the quality of the hardware /
connection [1]
Confidential material about the new cars may have to be signed / viewed in person
[1]
The new car may have to be viewed in person [1]
Hardware breakdown stops the conference taking place [1]
Communication breakdown stops the conference taking place [1]
Different time zones will mean the conference has to take place at inconvenient
times [1]
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 Audio Conferencing
• Hardware required
• A landline phone
• Internet Phone
• Computer (requires a microphone and speakers)
• Characteristics
• Voice communication only (no video)
• Audio is in real time
• Call management options (mute etc)
• Participants of the audio conference can be many miles apart or even in a different country
• Uses
• On the go business meetings
• Allows a hybrid collection of devices such as landline telephones, smartphones and
laptops (providing it is a VoIP call)

57
 Audio Conferencing
• Advantages
• Attendees do not have to travel to the event
• Convenience
• Cost saving
• Better for the environment
• Anyone within the company can attend regardless of location
• Events can be held at short notice as travel is not required
• Allows other members outside of the organisation to attend easily without having to visit on premises
• Audio conferencing is more cost effective as it requires less bandwidth and less expensive equipment
• Audio conferencing can integrate with many other devices and tools for communication
• Audio conferencing provides a higher level of security as users are not sharing a screen
• Disadvantages
• Can be difficult to determine who is the speaker
• Limited interaction
• Lack of visuals:
• Body language
• Users sharing visual content
• This can cause issues amongst employees when working across different time zones
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 Web Conferencing
• Hardware Required
• Computer (requires webcam, microphone and speakers)
• Characteristics
• Allows both sound and video
• Participants of the web conference can be many miles apart or even in a different country
• Audio and video are real time allowing users to interact with each other
• Allows virtual breakout rooms for teams of participants
• Screen and slide presentations
• Instant messaging
• Document sharing
• Uses
• Distance learning and education
• Online presentations
• Online team collaboration
• Interviews
• Customer support
• Virtual events
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 Web Conferencing
• Advantages
• Attendees do not have to travel to the event
• Convenience
• Cost saving
• Better for the environment
• Anyone within the company can attend regardless of location
• Events can be held at short notice as travel is not required
• Allows other members outside of the organisation to attend easily without having to visit on premises
• Web conferencing software often allows recording and playback features to allow members to review the event
• Enhanced visual presentations compared to video conferencing
• Real time collaboration
• Disadvantages
• Requires a strong and stable network connection
• Security and privacy concerns
• Distractions from other activities on the device
• Those using the system may need to be trained to use it effectively which can:
• Take time
• Be costly
• Dependent on users being technically savvy and having suitable devices/network connections 60