Chapter-2

Boolean algebra and logic Gates

 Introduction
In 1854 George Boole introduced a systematic treatment of logic and
developed for this purpose an algebraic system known as symbolic logic,
or Boolean algebra.
Boolean algebra is a branch of mathematics and it can be used to
describe the manipulation and processing of binary information. The
two-valued Boolean algebra has important application in the design of
modern computing systems.
Used to design and simplify the circuit of electronic devices.
Input and output is a member of set {0,1}
Basic element of circuit(gates) implements a Boolean operations.
 Boolean Algebra
Boolean algebra is algebra for the manipulation of objects that can take on
only two values, typically true and false.
- It is common to interpret the digital value 0 as false and the digital value 1
as true.
- A two-valued Boolean algebra is defined on a set of 2 elements B = {0, 1}
with 3 binary operators OR (+), AND ( • ), and NOT ( ' ).
 Boolean algebra and ordinary algebra
Boolean algebra is based on binary numbers where ordinary algebra is based
on decimal number system.
Boolean algebra is used in digital electronics. Ordinary algebra is used in
mathematics.
Basic operation in Boolean algebra are AND, OR and NOT. Basic operation
of ordinary algebra are addition , subtraction , multiplication and division.
No coefficient and power are used in Boolean algebra as A+A=A.
Coefficient and power are used in ordinary algebra as A+A=2A.
Boolean algebra holds both distributive laws:
A+(B.C)=(A+B).(A+C)
A.(B+C)=(A.B)+(A.C)
Ordinary algebra holds only one distribution law:
A.(B+C)=(A.B)+(A.C)
 Binary logic
Binary logic consists of binary variables and logical operations. The
variables are designated by letters of the alphabet such as A, B, C, x, y, Z,
etc., with each variable having two and only two distinct possible values: 1
and 0. There are three basic logical operations: AND, OR, and NOT.
Switching circuits and Binary Signals
Electronic digital circuits are sometimes called switching circuits because
they behave like a switch, with the active element such as a transistor either
conducting (switch closed) or not conducting (switch open). Instead of
changing the switch manually, an electronic switching circuit uses binary
signals to control the conduction or non-conduction state of the transistor.
Basic postulates
Basic Theory of Boolean Algebra
 The AND Operation
The AND operation is a binary operation, meaning that it needs two
operands.
c = a AND b
Both a and b must be true for the result to be true.
 The OR Operation
The OR operation is also a binary operation with two operands.
c = a OR b
If either a OR b is true, then the result is true.
 The NOT Operation
The NOT operation is a unary operation with only one operand.
c = NOT (a)
It simply reverses the true or false value of the operand.
 Boolean Function
A binary variable can take a value of 0 or, 1. A Boolean function is an
expression formed with binary variables, the two binary operators OR
and AND, unary operator NOT, parenthesis and an equal sign. For a
given value of variables, the function either can 0 or 1.
E.g.
F1 = xyz
F2 = x + y′z
F3 = x′y′z + x′yz + xy′
F4 = xy′ + x′z
 Truth Table of Boolean functions:
A truth table shows the relationship, in tabular form, between the input
values and the result of a specific Boolean operator or function on the
input variables.

Prove the above theorem using truth table……..

 Algebraic Manipulation
When a Boolean function is implemented with logic gates, each literal in
the function designates an input to a gate and each term is implemented
with a gate. The minimization of the number of literals and the number
of terms results is a circuit with less equipment.
Simplify the following Boolean functions to a minimum number of
literals.
x(x′ + y)
= xx′ + xy
= 0 + xy
= xy
x + x′y [Write law ñames]
= (x + x′)(x + y)
= 1(x + y)
=x+y

(x + y)(x + y′)
= x + xy + xy′ + yy′
= x(1 + y + y′)
=x
xy + x′z + yz
= xy + x′z + yz(x + x′)
= xy + x′z + xyz + x′yz
= xy(1 + z) + x′z(1 + y)
= xy + x′z
Q. Prove that: (x + y)(x̅ + y) = y
Q. Prove the Boolean expression: AB + AB′C + A′BC = AB + AC + BC
Q. Minimize the expression: AB + AC̅ + BC using theorem and properties
of Boolean Algebra.
Q. Simplify the given Boolean expression
AB’C+A’B’C+ABC
AB+A’BC+BC
PQ’+Q(P+Q)+P(P’+Q)
(X+Y)(XY’Z+XYZ+XY’Z’)
 Complement of a function
The complement of a function F is F′ and is obtained from an interchange of
0’s for 1’s and1’s for 0’s in the value of F. The complement of a function
may be derived algebraically through De Morgan’s theorem.

(A+B+C)’=(A+X)’ [suppose X=B+C]

=A’X’ [DE Morgan's 2nd law]
=A’. (B+C)’
=A’. (B’.C’)
=A’B’C’
Generalized theorems for finding complement:
(A+B+C+D+………Z)’=A’B’C’D’……..Z’
(A.B.C.D…………Z)’= A’+B’+C’+D’+……..Z’
Find the Complement of the functions F1 = x′yz′ + x′yz and F2 = x(y′z′ +yz).
 Logic Gates
A logic gate is an electronic device that produces a result based on one or
more input values.
- In reality, gates consist of one to six transistors, but digital designers think
of them as a single unit.
- Integrated circuits contain collections of gates suited to a particular
purpose.
Logic gate can be categories as follows:
Basic Gate:
AND
OR
NOT
 Exclusive-OR gate(XOR)
It produces 0 when two inputs are same. Otherwise 1
 Exclusive-NOR gate
It is the complement of XOR gate. An XNOR gate produce 1 if its two
inputs are same.
 Buffer gate
The Buffer Gate is a logic block that takes any input and compares the
value to 0. If the input signal is zero, the output will be zero. If the input
is non-zero, the output will be a 1.
 Universal gates
A universal gate is a gate which can implement any Boolean function
without need to use any other gate type. The NAND and NOR gates are
universal gates. In practice, this is advantageous since NAND and NOR
gates are economical and easier to fabricate and are the basic gates used
in all IC digital logic families.
NAND Gate is a Universal Gate
To prove that any Boolean function can be implemented using only
NAND gates, we will show that the AND, OR, and NOT operations can
be performed using only these gates.
NOR Gate is a Universal Gate
 Extending gates to multiple inputs
The gates shown in Fig above, except for the inverter and buffer, can be
extended to have more than two inputs. A gate can be extended to have
multiple inputs if the binary operation it represents is commutative and
associative.
Implementation of Boolean function using gates
Implement the following Boolean expression using gate.
F1 = xyz′
F2 = x + y′z
F3 = x′y′z + x′yz + xy′
Draw a logic gates that implements the following:
a. F = AB + C D' + B' C
b. F = (A + B) (B' + C) (C' + D + E)
 Integrated Circuits
An Integrated circuit is an association (or connection) of various electronic
devices such as resistors, capacitors and transistors fabricated to a
semiconductor material such as silicon or germanium. It is also called as a chip
or microchip. An IC can function as an amplifier, rectifier, oscillator, counter,
timer and memory. Sometime ICs are connected to various other systems to
perform complex functions.
Types of ICs
ICs can be categorized into two types
 Analog or Linear ICs
 Digital or logic ICs
 Integrated Circuits
Analog or Linear ICs: They produce continuous output depending on
the input signal. From the name of the IC we can deduce that the output
is a linear function of the input signal. operational amplifier is one of the
types of linear ICs which are used in amplifiers, timers and counters,
oscillators etc.
Digital or Logic ICs: Unlike Analog ICs, Digital ICs never give a
continuous output signal. Instead it operates only during defined states.
Digital ICs are used mostly in microprocessor and various memory
applications. Logic gates are the building blocks of Digital ICs which
operate either at 0 or 1.
 Advantages of ICs
In consumer electronics, ICs have made possible the development of
many new products, including personal calculators and computers,
digital watches, and video games.
They have also been used to improve or lower the cost of many existing
products, such as appliances, televisions, radios, and high-fidelity
equipment.
The logic and arithmetic functions of a small computer can now be
performed on a single VLSI chip called a microprocessor.
Complete logic, arithmetic, and memory functions of a small computer
can be packaged on a single printed circuit board, or even on a single
chip.
 Advantages of ICs
• Small physical size
• High speed
• Low power consumption
• Reduced cost
• High reliability
• Good performance
 Levels of Integration
During 1959 two different scientists invented IC’s. Jack Kilby from Texas
Instruments made his first germanium IC during 1959 and Robert Noyce made his
first silicon IC during the same year. But ICs were not the same since the day of their
invention; they have evolved a long way. Integrated circuits are often classified by
the number of transistors and other electronic components they contain:
SSI (small-scale integration): Up to 100 electronic components per chip
MSI (medium-scale integration): From 100 to 3,000 electronic components per
chip.
LSI (large-scale integration): From 3,000 to 100,000 electronic components per
chip
VLSI (very large-scale integration): From 100,000 to 1,000,000 electronic
components per chip
ULSI (ultra large-scale integration): More than 1 million electronic components
per chip
 SIP (Single In-line Package)

A single in-line package is an electronic device package which has one

row of connecting pins. It is not as popular as the dual in-line package
(DIP) which contains two rows of pins, but has been used for packaging
RAM chips and multiple resistors with a common pin. SIPs group RAM
chips together on a small board. The board itself has a single row of pin-
leads that resembles a comb extending from its bottom edge, which plug
into a special socket on a system or system-expansion board. SIPs are
commonly found in memory modules. SIP is not to be confused with
SIPP which is an archaic term referring to Single In-line Pin Package
which was a memory used in early computers.
 DIP (Dual In-line Package)

Dual in-line package (DIP) is a type of semiconductor component

packaging. DIPs can be installed either in sockets or permanently
soldered into holes extending into the surface of the printed circuit
board. DIP is relatively broadly defined as any rectangular package with
two uniformly spaced parallel rows of pins pointing downward, whether
it contains an IC chip or some other device(s), and whether the pins
emerge from the sides of the package and bend downwards. A DIP is
usually referred to as a DIPn, where n is the total number of pins.
 SIMM (Single In-line Memory Module)
Short for Single In-line Memory Module, SIMM is a circuit board that
holds six to nine memory chips per board, the ninth chip usually an error
checking chip (parity/non parity) and were commonly used with Intel
Pentium or Pentium compatible motherboards. SIMMs are rarely used
today and have been widely replaced by DIMMs. SIMMs are available
in two flavors: 30 pin and 72 pin. 30-pin SIMMs are the older standard,
and were popular on third and fourth generation motherboards. 72-pin
SIMMs are used on fourth, fifth and sixth generation PCs.
 DIMM (Dual In-line Memory Module)
Short for Dual In-line Memory Module, DIMM is a circuit board that
holds memory chips. DIMMs have a 64-bit path because of the Pentium
Processor requirements. Because of the new bit path, DIMMs can be
installed one at a time, unlike SIMMs on a Pentium that would require
two to be added. They come in both 168-pin and 184-pin versions.
Below is an example image.
 IC digital logic Families
Digital logic family refers to the specific circuit technology to which
digital integrated circuits belong. Family has its own basic electronic
circuit upon which more complex digital circuits and components are
developed. The basic circuit in each technology is a NAND, NOR, or an
inverter gate. The electronic components used in the construction of the
basic circuit are usually used as the name of the technology. Different
logic families have been introduced commercially. Some of most popular
are:
TTL (transistor-transistor logic): The TTL family evolved from a
previous technology that used diodes and transistors for the basic NAND
gate. This technology was called DTL for diode-transistor logic. Later
the diodes were replaced by transistors to improve the circuit operation
and the name of the logic family was changed to TTL.
 IC digital logic Families
ECL (emitter-coupled logic): Emitter-coupled logic (ECL) circuits
provide the highest speed among the integrated digital logic families.
ECL is used in systems such as supercomputers and signal processors,
where high speed is essential. The transistors in ECL gates operate in a
non-saturated state, a condition that allows the achievement of
propagation delays of 1 to 2 nanoseconds.

MOS (metal-oxide semiconductor): The metal-oxide semiconductor

(MOS) is a unipolar transistor that depends upon the flow of only one
type of carrier, which may be electrons (n-channel) or holes (p-channel),
this is in contrast to the bipolar transistor used in TTL and ECL gates,
where both carriers exist during normal operation. A p-channel MOS is
referred to as PMOS and an n-channel as NMOS. NMOS is the one that
is commonly used in circuits with only one type of MOS transistor.
 IC digital logic Families
CMOS (complementary metal-oxide semiconductor): Complementary
MOS (CMOS) technology uses one PMOS and one NMOS transistor
connected in a complementary fashion in all circuits. The most important
advantages of MOS over bipolar transistors are the high packing density of
circuits, a simpler processing technique during fabrication, and a more
economical operation because of the low power consumption.

IIL (Integrated Injection Logic): Integrated injection logic (IIL, I 2L, or

I2L) is a class of digital circuit technology built with multiple collector
bipolar junction transistors (BJT). When introduced it had speed comparable
to TTL yet was almost as low power as CMOS, making it ideal for use in
VLSI (and larger) integrated circuits. Although the logic voltage levels are
very close (High: 0.7V, Low: 0.2V), I2L has high noise immunity because it
operates by current instead of voltage. Sometimes also known as Merged
Transistor Logic.
 Characteristics of digital logic families (Technology Parameters)

For each specific implementation technology, there are details that differ
in their electronic circuit design and circuit parameters. The most
important parameters used to characterize an implementation technology
are:
Fan-in
For high-speed technologies, fan-in, the number of inputs to a gate, is
often restricted on gate primitives to no more than four or five. This is
primarily due to electronic considerations related to gate speed. To build
gates with larger fan-in, interconnected gates with lower fan-in are used
during technology mapping.
 Characteristics of digital logic families (Technology Parameters)

Fan-out specifies the number of standard loads driven by a gate output

i.e. Fan-out is a measure of the ability of a logic gate output to drive a
number of inputs of other logic gates of the same type. Maximum Fan-
out for an output specifies the fan-out that the output can drive with out
exceeding its specified maximum transition time. Standard loads may be
defined in a variety of ways depending upon the technology. For
example: the input to a specific inverter can have load equal to 1.0
standard load. If a gate drives six such inverters, then the fan-out is equal
to 6.0 standard loads
Characteristics of digital logic families (Technology Parameters)
 Characteristics of digital logic families (Technology Parameters)

Propagation delay:
The signals through a gate take a certain amount of time to propagate
from the inputs to the output. This interval of time is defined as the
propagation delay of the gate. This is symbolized as tpd. Propagation
delay is measured in nanoseconds (ns). 1 ns is equal to 10-9 of a second.
The signals that travel from the inputs of a digital circuit to its outputs
pass through a series of gates. The sum of the propagation delays
through the gates is the total delay of the circuit.
 Characteristics of digital logic families (Technology Parameters)

Power Dissipation: Every electronic circuit requires a certain amount of

power to operate. The power dissipation is a parameter expressed in milliwatts
(mW) and represents the amount of power needed by the gate. The number
that represents this parameter does not include the power delivered from
another gate; rather, it represents the power delivered to the gate from the
power supply. An IC with four gates will require, from its power supply, four
times the power dissipated in each gate.
The amount of power that is dissipated in a gate is calculated as:
PD (Power Dissipation) = Vcc * Icc
Where Vcc = supply voltage and
Icc = current drawn by the circuit
 Power Dissipation
The current drain from the power supply depends on the logic state of the
gate. The current drawn from the power supply when the output of the gate
is in the high-voltage level is termed I CCH. When the output is in the low-
voltage level, the current is ICCL. The average current is
Icc (avg)= (ICCH + ICCL )/2
And used to calculate the average power dissipation as:
PD (avg) = Vcc * Icc (avg)
Example: A standard TTL NAND gate uses a supply voltage V CC of 5V and
has current drains ICCH = 1 mA and ICCL = 3 mA.
The average current is (3 + 1)/2 = 2 mA.
The average power dissipation is 5 x 2 = 10 mW.
An IC that has four NAND gates dissipates a total of 10 x 4 = 40 mW.
 Characteristics of digital logic families (Technology Parameters)

Noise Margin: Undesirable or unwanted signals (e.g. voltages, currents etc.)

on the connecting wires between logic circuits are referred to as noise. There
are two types of noise to be considered:
• DC noise is caused by a drift in the voltage levels of a signal.
• AC noise is a random pulse that may be created by other switching signals.
Thus, noise is a term used to denote an undesirable signal that is superimposed
upon the normal operating signal. Noise margin is the maximum noise voltage
added to an input signal of a digital circuit that does not cause an undesirable
change in the circuit output. The ability of circuits to operate reliably in a noise
environment is important in many applications. Noise margin is expressed in
volts and represents the maximum noise signal that can be tolerated by the
gate.
Characteristics of digital logic families (Technology Parameters)
 Characteristics of digital logic families (Technology Parameters)

In fig, VOL is the maximum voltage that the output can be when in the low-
level state. The circuit can tolerate any noise signal that is less than the
noise margin (VIL - VOL ) because the input will recognize the signal as
being in the low-level state. Any signal greater than V OL plus the noise-
margin figure will send the input voltage into the indeterminate range,
which may cause an error in the output of the gate. In a similar fashion, a
negative-voltage noise greater than V OH - VIH will send the input voltage
into the indeterminate range.
The parameters for the noise margin in a standard TTL NAND gate are V OH
= 2.4 V, VOL = 0.4 V, VIH = 2 V, and VIL = 0.8 V. The high-state noise
margin is 2.4 - 2 = 0.4 V, and the low-state noise margin is 0.8 - 0.4 = 0.4 V.
 Positive Logic and Negative logic
In the binary system, the digits 1 and 0 are called binary digits. To
represent these two bits, we use two different voltage levels. These
voltages are called logic levels.
Generally higher voltage HIGH represents 1 and low voltage LOW
represents 0. This is called positive logic. Another system that represents
1 with LOW and 0 with HIGH is called negative logic. In a practical
digital circuit, however HIGH and LOW can be any voltage between a
specified minimum and maximum voltages.
Comparison