Nervous System

Introduction and

General Concepts
 Organization
• Central Nervous System
• Brain
• Spinal Cord
• Peripheral Nervous System
• Cranial Nerves
• Spinal Nerves
 Nervous System
Nervous System
CNS PNS
CNS
Sensory Motor

Somatic Autonomic
Parasympathetic
Parasympathetic Sympathetic
 Histology
• Neuron (Nerve Cell)
• Neuroglial Cells (Support Cells)
 Neuron Structure
• Cell Body
• Organelles
• Nissl Bodies
• Neuron Processes\Nerve Fibers
• Axons
• Dendrites
 Dendrites
• Many per neuron
• Short and branched
• Receptive portion of a neuron
• Carry impulses toward cell body
 Axons
• One per neuron
• Long, thin process
• Carry impulses away from cell body
• End in synaptic knobs
 PNS Axons
• Large axons covered in myelin produced
by Schwann cells
• Nodes of Ranvier
• Small axons do not have myelin covering
 Axons in CNS
• Myelin produced by oligodendrocyte
• White matter
• Myelinated fibers
• Gray matter
• Unmyelinated fibers or cell bodies only
 Neuroglial Cells
• Schwann cells
• Oligodendrocytes
• Astrocyte
• Microglia
• Ependymal cells
 Functional Classification of
Neurons
• Sensory Neurons
• PNS
• Afferent
• Interneurons
• CNS
• “Bridge”
• Motor Neurons
• PNS
• Efferent
Neurophysiology
 Definitions
• Polarization
• Hyperpolarization
• Depolarization
• Potential Difference
• Difference in electrical charge between
two points
 Resting Membrane Potential
• In a nerve cell, the RMP is measured at
negative 70mV
• Is a result of distribution of ions inside
and outside the cell (across the cell
membrane)
• K + is high inside the cell
• Na + is high outside the cell
 RMP (cont..)
• Hyperpolarization
• More negative
• Depolarization
• Less negative
• Repolarization
• Recovery of the neuron back to negative
70 mV
 Threshold Potential
• When the RMP is depolarized to negative
55 mV, it reaches threshold Stimulus
 Action Potential
• Rapid depolarization after the threshold
potential is reached
• Will result in the membrane potential
reaching a positive 30 mV
 Nerve Impulse Transmission
• Propagation of action potentials along
the nerve fiber
• Electrical impulse
• Begins on a dendrite
 Nerve Impulse Characteristics
• Refractory period
• “All or Nothing” response
• Summation
• Conduction
 Synaptic Transmission
• Chemical transmission
• Synapse is the junction between two
neurons
• Synapse occurs between axon of one
neuron and cell body or dendrite of
another neuron
• Neurons do not touch but instead form a
synaptic cleft
 Mechanism of Transmission
• Nerve impulse in pre-synaptic neuron
depolarizes the synaptic knob
• Calcium channels open
• Neurotransmitter released from synaptic
vesicles
• Neurotransmitter diffuses across synaptic
cleft causing depolarization of post-
synaptic neuron
 Neurotransmitters
• Acetylcholine
• Released by all motor neurons and some CNS
neurons
• Monoamines
• Epinephrine
• Norepinephrine
• Dopamine
• Serotonin
• Unmodified amino acids
 Neurotransmitters (cont.)
• Neurotransmitter in synaptic cleft either
destroyed by enzymes or taken back up
into the pre-synaptic knob
• Prevents continual stimulation of the
synapse
DRUG NT MECHANISM OF EFFECT
AFFECTED ACTION
Tryptophan Serotonin Stimulates NT synthesis sleepiness
Reserpine Norepi packages NT vesicles limb tremors
Curare ACh decreases NT in NMJ muscle paralysis
Valium GABA enhances receptor binding decreased anxiety
Nicotine ACh stimulates synthesis of increased
AChase alertness
Cocaine Norepi blocks reuptake euphoria
Tricyclic Anti Norepi blocks reuptake mood elevation
depressants
Prozac Serotonin blocks reuptake mood elevation
Central Nervous System
 CNS Protection
• Bones
• Skull
• Vertebrae
• Meninges
• Dura Mater
• Arachnoid Mater
• Pia Mater
• Cerebrospinal Fluid
 Meninges
• Dura Mater
• Outer layer of fibrous connective tissue
• Attached to cranium but not to vertebrae
• Sub-dural space
• Arachnoid Mater
• Middle layer of a thin net-like membrane
• Sub-arachnoid space
• Pia Mater
• Inner layer of thin connective tissue
• Dips into grooves and fissures of brain
 Cerebrospinal Fluid
• Fluid found in areas of the brain and
spinal cord
• About 150mL volume
• Function
• Mechanical protection
• Chemical protection
• Circulation
 Brain Ventricles
• Interconnected cavities within the
cerebral hemispheres and brain stem
filled with CSF
• Continuous with central canal of spinal
cord
• Lined by ependymal cells
CSF Secretion and Circulation
• Secreted by specialized cells in the
choroid plexus into the lateral ventricles
• CSF circulates into the third and fourth
ventricles and into the central canal and
subarachnoid space
• CSF is reabsorbed through arachnoid
granulations in the dural sinuses
Spinal Cord
 General Characteristics
• Passes downward from brain through the
foramen magnum and into the vertebral
canal
• Terminates in the conus medullaris
• 31 segments with cervical and lumbar
enlargements present
• Cauda Equina
• Filum Terminale
 Cross Sectional Anatomy
• Gray matter surrounded by white matter
• Gray matter contains cell bodies of
interneurons
• White matter contains myelinated axons
of interneurons
 Gray Matter
• Posterior (dorsal) horns
• Lateral horns
• Anterior (ventral) horns
• Central canal
• Gray commissure
• Anterior median fissure
• Posterior median sulcus
 White Matter
• Also called “white columns”
• Posterior (dorsal) funiculi
• Lateral funiculi
• Anterior (ventral) funiculi
• Contains nerve tracts that provide for 2-
way communication
 Anatomic Features
• Ventral root
• Dorsal root
• Dorsal root ganglion
• Ganglion is a bundle of cell bodies outside
the CNS
• DRG contains cell bodies of sensory
neurons
 Nerve Tracts
• Ascending tracts
• Located in dorsal column
• Carries sensory impulses
• Descending tracts
• Located in anterior column
• Carries motor impulses
 Nerve Tract Characteristics
• Most cross over
• Consist of 2 or 3 successive neurons
• Exhibit somatotropy
• All pathways are paired
 Reflex Arc
• Simplest form of nerve pathway
• Involves 2 or 3 neurons
• Involuntary response
• Does not involve the brain for interpretation
• Examples:
• Knee jerk reflex
• Sneezing
• Blinking
• Withdrawal
 Reflex Arc Components
• Receptor
• Sensory neuron
• Integration center (interneurons)
• Motor neuron
• Effector site
Brain
 Regions of the Brain
• Cerebrum
• Cerebellum
• Brain stem
 Cerebrum
• Largest portion of brain
• Divided into two cerebral hemispheres
• Hemispheres connected by the corpus
callosum
• Surface ridges called convolutions
• Convolutions separated by fissures (deep
grooves) and sulci (shallow grooves)
 Cerebrum (cont.)
• Each hemisphere divided into lobes
• Frontal
• Parietal
• Temporal
• Occipital
• Fissures and sulci
• Central sulcus (frontal/parietal)
• Lateral sulcus (temporal/other lobes)
• Longitudinal fissure (cerebral hemispheres)
• Transverse fissure (cerebrum/cerebellum)
 Cerebral Cortex
• Composed of gray matter
• Responsible for all conscious behavior
• Includes functional areas
• Motor areas
• Sensory areas
• Association areas
 Motor Areas
• Confined to the frontal cortex
• Primary motor cortex
• Voluntary muscle movement
• Located in pre-central gyrus
• Brocca’s area
• Motor speech area
• Located in left frontal lobe above
temporal lobe
 Sensory Areas
• Concerned with conscious awareness of sensations
• Located in varying areas of the cortex
• Primary somatosensory cortex
• Receives information from skin receptors
• Located in post-central gyrus
• Visual cortex
• Receives information from sight receptors
• Located in occipital cortex
• Auditory cortex
• Receives information from sound receptors
• Located in temporal cortex
• Gustatory cortex
• Receives information from taste receptors
• Located in parietal cortex
 Association Areas
• Includes areas not directly involved with
motor or sensory function
• Usually interconnected
• Involve all four lobes
• Used for analyzing and interpreting
sensory experiences
• Helps provide memory, reasoning,
verbalizing, judgment and emotions
 Diencephalon
• Includes two areas of gray matter
• Thalamus
• Hypothalamus
• Involved in emotional responses through
the limbic system
 Thalamus
• Central relay station for incoming
sensory information except smell
• Directs impulse to the appropriate
cerebral cortex area for interpretation
 Hypothalamus
• Main visceral control center of the body
• Regulates homeostasis by controlling:
• Heart rate and blood pressure
• Body temperature
• Fluid and electrolyte balance
• Body weight and hunger
• Digestive movements and secretions
• Endocrine system function
• Regulation of circadian cycles
 Limbic System
• Includes structures in the diencephalon, frontal
and temporal cortices and basal ganglia
• Controls emotional experience and expression
• Produces feelings of fear, anger, pleasure,
sorrow, etc.
• Involved in sense of smell
• Recognizes life threatening upsets
 Brain Stem
• Serves as pathway for nerve tracts and
relay station for these tracts
• Origination point of many cranial nerves
• Composed of three major parts
• Midbrain
• Pons
• Medulla Oblongata
 Pons
• Bulging portion of brain stem
• Conduction tract bridge
• Contains areas associated with the
reticular formation
• Pneumotaxic area of respiratory center
• Respiratory rate regulation
 Medulla Oblongata
• Inferior portion of brain stem
• Autonomic reflex center
• Maintains visceral organ homeostasis
• Cardiac center
• Cardiac contraction force and rate
• Vasomotor center
• Blood pressure regulation
• Respiratory center
• Respiratory depth and rhythm
• Centers for involuntary activities
• Coughing, sneezing, etc.
 Functional Brain Systems
• Limbic System
• Emotional control
• Reticular Formation
• Controls brain alertness
• Inhibited by sleep, drugs, alcohol, etc.
• Sleep center
• Cerebellum
 Cerebellum
• Large, cauliflower shaped area located dorsal to
pons and medulla and inferior to occipital lobe
• Separated from occipital lobe by the transverse
fissure
• White matter within gray matter
• Coordinates:
• Subconscious voluntary muscle movement
• Skilled movements
• Posture
• Balance
Peripheral Nervous System
Peripheral Nerve Organization
• Sensory
• Motor
• Somatic
• Autonomic
» Sympathetic
» Parasympathetic
 Peripheral Nerve Structure
• Cord like bundle of axons wrapped in
connective tissue
• Endoneurium
• Around each axon
• Perineurium
• Around each fascicle of axons
• Epineurium
• Around each nerve
 Functional Classification
• Motor
• Efferent
• Carry motor impulses away from CNS
• Only found in five pairs of cranial nerves
• Sensory
• Afferent
• Carry sensory impulses to CNS
• Only found in three pair of cranial nerves
• Mixed
• Carries both sensory and motor impulses
• Most common
 Cranial Nerves
• Originate from the brain
• Two pairs from forebrain
• 10 pairs from brain stem
 Olfactory Nerve
• Cranial Nerve I
• Sensory nerve only
• Sense of smell
 Optic Nerve
• Cranial Nerve II
• Sensory nerve only
• Sight
 Oculomotor
• Cranial Nerve III
• Motor nerve only
• Eye muscle movement
 Trochlear Nerve
• Cranial Nerve IV
• Motor nerve only
• Eye muscle movement
 Trigeminal Nerve
• Cranial Nerve V
• Mixed nerve
• Largest cranial nerve
• Sensory from face and mouth
• Motor to muscles of mastication
 Abducens Nerve
• Cranial Nerve VI
• Motor nerve only
• Eye muscle movement
 Facial Nerve
• Cranial Nerve VII
• Mixed nerve
• Sensory from face
• Motor to muscles of facial expression
 Vestibulocochlear Nerve
• Cranial Nerve VIII
• Sensory nerve only
• Sensory from ear for hearing and
balance
 Glossopharyngeal Nerve
• Cranial Nerve IX
• Mixed nerve
• Sensory from mucous membranes of
mouth
• Motor to tongue and pharynx
 Vagus Nerve
• Cranial Nerve X
• Mixed nerve
• Sensory from abdomen
• Motor to visceral smooth muscle
 Accessory Nerve
• Cranial Nerve XI
• Motor nerve only
• Motor to neck muscles
 Hypoglossal Nerve
• Cranial Nerve XII
• Motor nerve only
• Motor to tongue muscles
 Spinal Nerves
• Formed from fusion of the dorsal and
ventral root
• Passes through intervertebral foramen
• Named for the region in which they arise
• All mixed nerves
• Consists of 31 pairs with the same
structure as cranial nerves
 Distribution of Spinal Nerves
• Anterior and posterior branches
• Plexus is a branching network of anterior
branches of spinal nerves
• Nerves do not extend directly to the part
they innervateresults in fibers from
several different spinal nerves
• If injured, may not leave the body part
unusable
 Nerve Plexus
• Present in all spinal nerves except T2-
T12
• Will form:
• Cervical plexus
• Brachial plexus
• Lumbar plexus
• Sacral plexus
 Somatic

and

Special Senses
 Somatic Sensations
• Sensation
• Conscious or unconscious awareness of
external or internal stimulus
• Perception
• Conscious awareness and interpretation
of sensation
• Adaptation
• Receptor becomes less stimulated due to
continuous stimulation
 Sensory Receptors
• Mechanoreceptors
• Thermoreceptors
• Chemoreceptors
• Photoreceptors
• Nocioreceptors
 Types of Somatic Senses
• Exteroceptive
• Changes at the body surface
• Proprioceptive
• Changes in muscles, tendons and body position
• Visceroceptive
• Changes in the viscera
 Touch and Pressure Senses
• Free nerve endings
• Naked dendritic endings in epithelium
and connective tissue
• Meissner’s corpuscles
• Pacinian corpuscles
 Meissner’s Corpuscles
• Encapsulated nerve endings
• Mechanoreceptor
• Detects light touch
• Abundant in hairless portions of skin
 Pacinian Corpuscles
• Encapsulated nerve endings
• Mechanoreceptor
• Detects heavy pressure
• Abundant in deep subcutaneous tissues
 Temperature Senses
• Heat receptors
• Responsive to temperatures between 25
degrees Celsius (77 degrees Fahrenheit)
and 45 degrees Celsius (113 degrees
Fahrenheit)
• Cold receptors
• Responsive to temperatures between 10
degrees Celsius (50 degrees Fahrenheit)
and 20 degrees Celsius (68 degrees
Fahrenheit)
 Pain
• Receptors called nocioreceptors
• Function to protect against further injury
• Generally will not undergo adaptation
• Referred pain
 Acute vs. Chronic Pain
• Occurs rapidly • Begins slowly and
• Not felt in deep increases in intensity
over time
tissues
• Dull, aching,
• Sharp and fast throbbing
• Myelinated fibers • Can occur anywhere
• Stops when stimulus • Unmyelinated fibers
removed • Continues after
stimulus removal
 Stretch Receptors
• Proprioceptors
• Sends information regarding length and
tension of muscles to the brain and spinal
cord
• Two types
• Muscle spindles
• Golgi tendon organs
 Muscle Spindles
• Located in skeletal muscles near tendon
junction
• Stimulated when muscle is relaxed
• Action produced is called stretch reflex
• Helps maintain position of limbs
 Golgi Tendon Organs
• Found in tendons close to muscle
attachments
• Stimulated by increased tension
• Helps maintain posture and prevents
tearing of tendons
 Special Senses
• Vision
• Hearing
• Equilibrium
• Taste
• Smell
 Olfaction
• Sense of smell
• Organ of olfaction is the olfactory
epithelium located in upper nasal cavity
• Chemoreceptors
• Hair cell
• Chemicals dissolved in water
• Rapid sensory adaptation
 Gustation
• Sense of taste
• Primary organ are taste buds
• Chemoreceptors
• Taste hair protruding from taste pore
• Chemicals dissolved in saliva
• Undergoes rapid sensory adaptation
• Detects four taste sensations
 Taste Sensations
• Sweet tip of tongue
• Sourlateral tongue
• Saltperimeter of tongue
• Bitterposterior portion of tongue
• Umami savory
 Hearing
• Organ of hearing is the Organ of Corti
located in the cochlea
• Mechanoreceptors
 Ear Structure
• External Ear
• Middle Ear
• Inner Ear
 External Ear
• Auricle
• Cartilage of outer ear
• Collects sound waves
• External auditory meatus
• Ear canal
• Starts vibrations of sound waves and
directs waves to eardrum
 Middle Ear
• Tympanic membrane
• Eardrum
• Tympanic reflex
• Tympanic cavity
• Air filled space behind eardrum
• Separates outer and inner ear
• Auditory ossicles
• Eustachian tube
• Connects middle ear to nasopharynx
• Equalizes pressure on both sides of tympanic
membrane
 Auditory Ossicles
• Malleus
• Hammer
• Connected to tympanic membrane and incus
• Incus
• Anvil
• Connected to malleus and stapes
• Stapes
• Stirrup
• Connected to incus and oval window
 Inner Ear
• Consists of communicating complex of
tubes called labyrinth
• Two labyrinths present
• Osseous labyrinth
• Membranous labyrinth
• Two types of fluid in labyrinths
• Perilymph between osseous and
membranous labyrinth
• Endolymph filling membranous labyrinth
 Inner Ear Labyrinth
• Cochlea
• Sense of hearing
• Semi-circular canals
• Dynamic equilibrium
• Vestibule
• Static equilibrium
 Cochlea
• Osseous labyrinth divided into two
compartments
• Scala vestibuli
• Scala tympani
• Cochlear duct located between these two bony
compartments
• Cochlear duct separated from bony
compartments by two membranes
• Vestibular membrane
• Basilar membrane
 Sound Wave Pathway
• Auricle
• External auditory meatus
• Tympanic membrane
• Auditory ossicles
• Oval window
• Perilymph of scala vestibuli
• Endolymph of cochlear duct
• Hair cells in Organ of Corti
 Static Equilibrium
• Static equilibrium functions to sense
position of the head and maintains sense
of posture
• Macula is organ of static equilibrium
• Vestibule of inner ear contains two
membranous chambers
• Utricle communicates with semi-circular
canals
• Saccule communicates with cochlear duct
 Static Equilibrium Pathway
• Hair cells bend when gelatinous
substance sags due to head position
change
• Triggers impulse through vestibular
branch of cranial nerve VIII
• Pons
• Cerebellum
 Dynamic Equilibrium
• Functions to maintain balance during
rapid head or body movement
• Semi-circular canals end in ampulla
• Crista ampullaris is organ of dynamic
equilibriumcontains a patch of hair
cells inside a mass of gelatin
Dynamic Equilibrium Pathway
• When head bends, gelatin does not move
which causes hair cells to bend
• Triggers sensory impulse over the
vestibular branch of cranial nerve VIII
• Pons
• Cerebellum
 Vision
• Sense of sight
• Organ of vision is the retina
• Sensory receptors called photoreceptors
Accessory Structures of the Eye
• Eyelids
• Protects eyeball
• Conjunctiva
• Lacrimal apparatus
• Provides tear secretion
• Lacrimal gland
• Nasolacrimal duct
• Extrinsic eye muscles
 Extrinsic Eye Muscles
• Superior rectusup and toward midline
• Inferior rectusdown and toward midline
• Lateral rectusaway from midline
• Medial rectustoward midline
• Inferior obliqueup and away from
midline
• Superior obliquedown and away from
midline
 Eye Structure
• Three layers (tunics)
• Outer (fibrous) tunic
• Middle (vascular) tunic
• Inner (sensory) tunic
 Outer Tunic
• Fibrous for protection
• Cornea
• Transparent anterior portion
• Helps focus incoming light rays
• Sclera
• White posterior portion
• Continuous with eyeball except at optic
disk
 Middle Tunic
• Choroid coat
• Iris
• Suspensory ligaments
• Lens
• Ciliary body
• Ciliary muscles
• Ciliary processes
• Anterior Cavityaqueous humor
• Anterior chamber
• Posterior chamber
 Inner Tunic
• Retina
• Photoreceptors
• Rodsnight vision
• Conescolor vision
• Optic disk
• Posterior cavity
• Vitreous humor
 Autonomic Nervous System
• Regulates smooth muscle, cardiac muscle
and glands (involuntary actions)
• Two divisions:
• Parasympatheticoperates under normal
conditions
• Sympatheticoperates under stressful
conditions
 Somatic vs. Autonomic
• One motor neuron • Two motor neurons
• No ganglion • Ganglion present
• Acetylcholine • Various
• Effectors are skeletal neurotransmitters
muscles • Effectors are smooth
muscles, cardiac
muscle and glands
 ANS Divisions
• Parasympathetic
• Sympathetic
Parasympathetic System
• Preganglionic fiber is long and arises
from the craniosacral regions of
brain and spinal cord
• Postganglionic fiber is short
• Postganglionic fiber
neurotransmitter is acetylcholine
• Ganglia located at or near effector
site
 Sympathetic System
• Preganglionic fiber is short and arises
from the thoracolumbar regions of
the spinal cord
• Postganglionic fiber is long
• Postganglionic fiber neurotransmitter
is norepinephrine
• Ganglia located on either side of the
spinal cord far away from effector site
Sympathetic Division Pathway
• T1-L2
• Preganglionic neuron from spinal cord
• Exits from white ramus communicans
• Enters paravertebral ganglion to form
part of the sympathetic chain
 Parasympathetic Division
Pathway
• Craniosacral location
• Long preganglionic fibers
• Much simpler pathway