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Chapter-V

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Chapter-V

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Chapter-V

Error Detection and Correction


Note

Data can be corrupted


during transmission.

Some applications require that


errors be detected and corrected.
10-1 INTRODUCTION

Let us first discuss some issues related, directly or


indirectly, to error detection and correction.

Topics discussed in this section:


Types of Errors
Redundancy
Detection Versus Correction
Forward Error Correction Versus Retransmission
Coding
Modular Arithmetic
Note

In a single-bit error, only 1 bit in the data


unit has changed.
Figure 10.1 Single-bit error
Note

A burst error means that 2 or more bits


in the data unit have changed.
Figure 10.2 Burst error of length 8
Note

To detect or correct errors, we need to


send extra (redundant) bits with data.
Figure 10.3 The structure of encoder and decoder
Note

In this book, we concentrate on block


codes; we leave difficulty codes
to advanced texts.
Note

In modulo-N arithmetic, we use only the


integers in the range 0 to N −1, inclusive.
Figure 10.4 XORing of two single bits or two words
10-2 BLOCK CODING

In block coding, we divide our message into blocks,


each of k bits, called datawords. We add r redundant
bits to each block to make the length n = k + r. The
resulting n-bit blocks are called codewords.

Topics discussed in this section:


Error Detection
Error Correction
Hamming Distance
Minimum Hamming Distance
Figure 10.5 Datawords and codewords in block coding
Example 10.1

The 4B/5B block coding discussed in Chapter 4 is a good


example of this type of coding. In this coding scheme,
k = 4 and n = 5. As we saw, we have 2k = 16 datawords
and 2n = 32 codewords. We saw that 16 out of 32
codewords are used for message transfer and the rest are
either used for other purposes or unused.
Figure 10.6 Process of error detection in block coding
Example 10.2

Let us assume that k = 2 and n = 3. Table 10.1 shows the


list of datawords and codewords. Later, we will see
how to derive a codeword from a dataword.

Assume the sender encodes the dataword 01 as 011 and


sends it to the receiver. Consider the following cases:

1. The receiver receives 011. It is a valid codeword. The


receiver extracts the dataword 01 from it.
Example 10.2 (continued)

2. The codeword is corrupted during transmission, and


111 is received. This is not a valid codeword and is
discarded.

3. The codeword is corrupted during transmission, and


000 is received. This is a valid codeword. The receiver
incorrectly extracts the dataword 00. Two corrupted
bits have made the error undetectable.
Table 10.1 A code for error detection (Example 10.2)
Note

An error-detecting code can detect


only the types of errors for which it is
designed; other types of errors may
remain undetected.
Figure 10.7 Structure of encoder and decoder in error correction
Example 10.3

Let us add more redundant bits to Example 10.2 to see if


the receiver can correct an error without knowing what
was actually sent. We add 3 redundant bits to the 2-bit
dataword to make 5-bit codewords. Table 10.2 shows the
datawords and codewords. Assume the dataword is 01.
The sender creates the codeword 01011. The codeword is
corrupted during transmission, and 01001 is received.
First, the receiver finds that the received codeword is not
in the table. This means an error has occurred. The
receiver, assuming that there is only 1 bit corrupted, uses
the following strategy to guess the correct dataword.
Example 10.3 (continued)
1. Comparing the received codeword with the first
codeword in the table (01001 versus 00000), the
receiver decides that the first codeword is not the one
that was sent because there are two different bits.

2. By the same reasoning, the original codeword cannot


be the third or fourth one in the table.

3. The original codeword must be the second one in the


table because this is the only one that differs from the
received codeword by 1 bit. The receiver replaces
01001 with 01011 and consults the table to find the
dataword 01.
Table 10.2 A code for error correction (Example 10.3)
Note

The Hamming distance between two


words is the number of differences
between corresponding bits.
Note

To guarantee the detection of up to s


errors in all cases, the minimum
Hamming distance in a block
code must be dmin = s + 1.
Note

A simple parity-check code can detect


an odd number of errors.
Note

All Hamming codes discussed in this


book have dmin = 3.

The relationship between m and n in


these codes is n = 2m − 1.
Figure 10.11 Two-dimensional parity-check code
Figure 10.11 Two-dimensional parity-check code

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