Data Base Management System

Unit -2
Intro-to-XP.ppt

U2.1
 Relational Model
• Main idea:
Table: relation
Column header: attribute
Row: tuple
• Relational schema: name(attributes)
Example: employee(ssno,name,salary)
• Attributes:
Each attribute has a domain – domain constraint
Each attribute is atomic: we cannot refer to or
directly see a subpart of the value.

Fall 2005
 Components of Relational Model
• There are three components:
1. A set of domains and a set of relations
2. Integrity rules
3. Operations on relations

• Characteristics of Relations
1. Ordering of Tuple in Relation
2. Ordering of values within a Tuple
3. Values in Tuples : Atomic and NULL values
4. Interpretation of a Relation
 Relation Example

Account Customer
AccountId CustomerId Balance Id Name Addr
150 20 11,000 20 Tom Irvine
160 23 2,300 23 Jane LA
180 23 32,000 32 Jack Riverside
• Database schema consists of
– a set of relation schema
– Account(AccountId, CustomerId, Balance)
– Customer(Id, Name, Addr)
– a set of constraints over the relation schema
– AccountId, CustomerId must be integers
– Name and Addr must be string of characters
– CustomerId in Account must be from Ids in Customer
 NULL value

Customer(Id, Name, Addr)

Id Name Addr
20 Tom Irvine
23 Jane LA
32 Jack NULL

• Attributes can take a special value: NULL

Either not known: we don’t know Jack’s address
or does not exist: savings account 1001 does not have “overdraft”
• This is the single-value constrain on Attr: at most one
Either one: a string
Or zero: NULL
 Why Constraints?

• Make tasks of application programmers easier:

If DBMS guarantees account >=0, then debit application
programmers do not worry about overdrawn accounts.
• Enable us to identify redundancy in schemas:
Help in database design
E.g., if we know course names are unique, then we may not need
another “course id” attribute
• Help the DBMS in query processing.
They can help the query optimizer choose a good execution plan
 Domain Constraints

• Every attribute has a type:

integer, float, date, boolean, string, etc.
• An attribute can have a domain. E.g.:
Id > 0
Salary > 0
age < 100
City in {Irvine, LA, Riverside}
• An insertion can violate the domain constraint.
DBMS checks if insertion violates domain constraint and reject the insertion.

Integer String String

Id Name City
20 Tom Irvine
23 Jane San Diego
-2 Jack Riverside violations
 Key Constraints
• Superkey: a set of attributes such that if two tuples agree on these
attributes, they must agree on all the attributes
All attributes always form a superkey.
• Example:
AccountID forms a superkey, I.e., if two records agree on this
attribute, then they must agree on other attributes
Notice that the relational model allow duplicates
Any superset of {Account} is also a superkey
There can be multiple superkeys
• Log: assume LogID is a superkey
Log(LogId, AccountId, Xact#, Time, Amount) Illegal
LogID AccountID Xact# Time Amount
1001 111 4 1/12/02 $100
1001 122 4 12/28/01 $20
1003 333 6 9/1/00 $60
 Keys

• Key:
Minimal superkey (no proper subset is a superkey)
If more than one key: choose one as a primary key
• Example:
Key 1: LogID (primary key)
Key 2: AccountId, Xact#
Superkeys: all supersets of the keys
Log(LogId, AccountId, Xact#, Time, Ammount)
LogID AccountID Xact# Time Amount
1001 111 4 1/12/02 $100 OK
1002 122 4 12/28/01 $20
1003 333 6 9/1/00 $60
 Integrity Rules
There are two Integrity Rules that every relation should
follow :
1. Entity Integrity (Rule 1)
2. Referential Integrity (Rule 2)

Entity Integrity states that –

If attribute A of a relation R is a prime attribute of R,

then A can not accept null and duplicate values.
 Referential Integrity Constraints
• Given two relations R and S, R has a primary key X (a set of attributes)
• A set of attributes Y is a foreign key of S if:
Attributes in Y have same domains as attributes X
For every tuple s in S, there exists a tuple r in R: s[Y] = r[X].
• A referential integrity constraint from attributes Y of S to R means that Y is
a foreign key that refers to the primary key of R.
• The foreign key must be either equal to the primary key or be entirely null.

Foreign key Y X (primary key of R)

r
s

S R
 Examples of Referential Integrity

Account Customer
AccountId CustomerId Balance Id Name Addr
150 20 11,000 20 Tom Irvine
160 23 2,300 23 Jane LA
180 23 32,000 32 Jack Riverside

Account.customerId to Customer.Id

Student Dept
Id Name Dept Name chair
1111 Mike ICS ICS Tom
2222 Harry CE CE Jane
3333 Ford ICS MATH Jack

Student.dept to Dept.name: every value of Student.dept must also be a

value of Dept.name.
 Relational
Relational Algebra is Algebra
:
1. The formal description of how a relational database
operates
2. An interface to the data stored in the database itself.
3. The mathematics which underpin SQL operations

The DBMS must take whatever SQL statements the

user types in and translate them into relational algebra
operations before applying them to the database.
 Operators - Retrieval
There are two groups of operations:

1. Mathematical set theory based operations:

UNION, INTERSECTION, DIFFERENCE, and
CARTESIAN PRODUCT.
2. Special database oriented operations:
SELECT , PROJECT and JOIN.
 Symbolic Notation
• SELECT σ (sigma)
• PROJECT  (pi)
• PRODUCT  (times)
• JOIN ⋈ (bow-tie)
• UNION  (cup)
• INTERSECTION  (cap)
• DIFFERENCE - (minus)
• RENAME  (rho)
 SET Operations - requirements
For set operations to function correctly the
relations R and S must be union compatible.
Two relations are union compatible if

They have the same number of attributes

The domain of each attribute in column
order is the same in both R and S.
 Set Operations - semantics
Consider two relations R and S.
• UNION of R and S
the union of two relations is a relation that includes all the tuples
that are either in R or in S or in both R and S. Duplicate tuples
are eliminated.

• INTERSECTION of R and S
the intersection of R and S is a relation that includes all tuples
that are both in R and S.

• DIFFERENCE of R and S
the difference of R and S is the relation that contains all the
tuples that are in R but that are not in S.
 Union , Intersection , Difference -

Set operators. Relations must have the same schema.

R(name, dept) S(name, dept)
Name Dept Name Dept
Jack Physics Jack Physics
Tom ICS Mary Math

RS RS R-S

Name Dept Name Dept Name Dept
Jack Physics Jack Physics Tom ICS
Tom ICS
Mary Math
 Relational SELECT
SELECT is used to obtain a subset of the tuples of a relation that
satisfy a select condition.

For example, find all employees born after 1st Jan 1950:
SELECT dob > ’01/JAN/1950’ (employee)
or
σ dob > ’01/JAN/1950’ (employee)

Conditions can be combined together using ^ (AND) and v (OR). For

example, all employees in department 1 called `Smith':

σ depno = 1 ^ surname = `Smith‘ (employee)

 Selection s

s c (R): return tuples in R that satisfy condition C.

Emp (name, dept, salary)
Name Dept Salary
Jane ICS 30K
Jack Physics 30K
Tom ICS 75K
Joe Math 40K
Jack Math 50K

s salary>35K (Emp) s dept=ics and salary<40K (Emp)

Name Dept Salary Name Dept Salary
Tom ICS 75K Jane ICS 30K
Joe Math 40K
Jack Math 50K
 Relational PROJECT
The PROJECT operation is used to select a subset
of the attributes of a relation by specifying the
names of the required attributes.

For example, to get a list of all employees with their

salary
PROJECT ename, salary (employee)

OR

πename, salary(employee)
 Projection 

A1,…,Ak(R): pick columns of attributes A1,…,Ak of R.

Emp (name, dept, salary)
Name Dept Salary
Jane ICS 30K
Jack Physics 30K
Tom ICS 75K
Joe Math 40K
Jack Math 50K

name,dept (Emp) name (Emp)

Name Dept Name
Jane ICS Jane
Jack Physics Jack
Tom ICS Tom
Joe Math Joe
Jack Math
Duplicates (“Jack”) eliminated.
 CARTESIAN PRODUCT
The Cartesian Product is also an operator
which works on two sets. It is sometimes called
the CROSS PRODUCT or CROSS JOIN.

It combines the tuples of one relation with all

the tuples of the other relation.
 Cartesian Product: 

R  S: pair each tuple r in R with each tuple s in S.

Emp (name, dept) Contact(name, addr)
Name Dept Name Addr
Jack Physics Jack Irvine
Tom LA
Tom ICS
Mary Riverside

Emp  Contact
E.name Dept C.Name Addr
Jack Physics Jack Irvine
Jack Physics Tom LA
Jack Physics Mary Riverside
Tom ICS Jack Irvine
Tom ICS Tom LA
Tom ICS Mary Riverside
 JOIN Example
JOIN Operator

• JOIN is used to combine related tuples from two relations R

and S.
• In its simplest form the JOIN operator is just the cross
product of the two relations and is represented as (R ⋈ S).

• JOIN allows you to evaluate a join condition between the

attributes of the relations on which the join is undertaken.

The notation used is

R⋈S
Join Condition
 Join

R S = s c (R  S)
C
• Join condition C is of the form:
<cond_1> AND <cond_2> AND … AND <cond_k>
Each cond_i is of the form A op B, where:
– A is an attribute of R, B is an attribute of S
– op is a comparison operator: =, <, >, , , or .
• Different types:
– Theta-join
– Equi-join
– Natural join
 Theta-Join

R S
R.A>S.C

R(A,B) S(C,D)
A B C D
3 4 2 7
5 7 6 8

RS Result
R.A R.B S.C S.D
3 4 2 7 R.A R.B S.C S.D
3 4 6 8 3 4 2 7
5 7 2 7 5 7 2 7
5 7 6 8
 Theta-Join
R S
R.A>S.C, R.B  S.D

R(A,B) S(C,D)
A B C D
3 4 2 7
5 7 6 8

RS Result
R.A R.B S.C S.D R.A R.B S.C S.D
3 4 2 7 3 4 2 7
3 4 6 8
5 7 2 7
5 7 6 8
 Equi-Join

• Special kind of theta-join: C only uses the equality operator.

R(A,B) S(C,D)
A B C D
3 4 2 7
5 7 6 8

R S
R.B=S.D
RS Result
R.A R.B S.C S.D R.A R.B S.C S.D
3 4 2 7 5 7 2 7
3 4 6 8
5 7 2 7
5 7 6 8
 Natural-Join

• Relations R and S. Let L be the union of their attributes.

• Let A1,…,Ak be their common attributes.
R S =  L (R S)
R.A1=S.A1,…,R.Ak=S.Ak
 Natural-Join

Emp (name, dept) Contact(name, addr)

Name Dept Name Addr
Jack Physics Jack Irvine
Tom LA
Tom ICS
Mary Riverside

Emp Contact: all employee names, depts, and addresses.

Emp.name Emp.Dept Contact.name Contact.addr

Jack Physics Jack Irvine
Jack Physics Tom LA
Emp  Contact
Jack Physics Mary Riverside
Tom ICS Jack Irvine
Tom ICS Tom LA
Tom ICS Mary Riverside

Result Name Dept Addr

Jack Physics Irvine
Tom ICS LA
 Outer Joins

• Motivation: “join” can lose information

• E.g.: natural join of R and S loses info about Mary,
since the tuple does not join with other tuples.
Called “dangling tuples”.

R S
Name Dept Name Addr
Jack Physics Jack Irvine
Tom ICS Mike LA
Mary Riverside
• Outer join: natural join, but use NULL values to fill in dangling tuples.
• Three types: “left”, “right”, or “full”
 Left Outer Join
Name Dept Name Addr
R Jack Physics Jack Irvine S
Mike LA
Tom ICS
Mary Riverside

Left outer join

R S

Name Dept Addr

Jack Physics Irvine
Tom ICS NULL

Pad null value for left dangling tuples.

 Right Outer Join
Name Addr
Name Dept Jack Irvine
R Jack Physics Mike LA S
Tom ICS Mary Riverside

Right outer join

R S
Name Dept Addr
Jack Physics Irvine
Mike NULL LA
Mary NULL Riverside

Pad null value for right dangling tuples.

 Full Outer Join

Name Dept Name Addr

R Jack Physics Jack Irvine S
Tom ICS Mike LA
Mary Riverside

Full outer join

R S

Name Dept Addr

Jack Physics Irvine
Tom ICS NULL
Mike NULL LA
Mary NULL Riverside

Pad null values for both left and right dangling tuples.
 OUTER JOIN Example 1
R LEFT OUTER JOIN R.ColA = S.SColA S
R ColA ColB
A 1 A 1 A 1
B 2 D 3 D 3
D 3 E 5 E 4
F 4 B 2 - -
E 5 F 4 - -

S R RIGHT OUTER JOIN R.ColA = S.SColA S

SColA SColB
A 1 A 1 A 1
C 2 D 3 D 3
D 3 E 5 E 4
E 4 - - C 2
 OUTER JOIN Example 2
R FULL OUTER JOIN R.ColA = S.SColA S
R ColA ColB
A 1 A 1 A 1
B 2 D 3 D 3
D 3 E 5 E 4
F 4 B 2 - -
E 5 F 4 - -
- - C 2
S SColA SColB
A 1
C 2
D 3
E 4
 Joins Revised

Joins may be represented as

Venn diagrams, as shown
above along with other common
set operations:

Result of applying these joins in a query:

INNER JOIN: Select only those rows that have values in common in the columns specified in the ON
clause.
LEFT, RIGHT, or FULL OUTER JOIN: Select all rows from the table on the left (or right, or both)
regardless of whether the other table has values in common and (usually) enter NULL where data is
missing.
 Combining Different Operations

• Construct general expressions using basic operations.

• Schema of each operation:
, , -: same as the schema of the two relations
Selection s : same as the relation’s schema
Projection : attributes in the projection
Cartesian product  : attributes in two relations, use prefix
to avoid confusion
Theta Join : same as 
Natural Join C : union of relations’ attributes, merge
common attributes
Renaming: new renamed attributes
 Example 1

customer(ssn, name, city)

account(custssn, balance)
“List account balances of Tom.”

balance ( custssnssn
(account (
name tom
customer )))

balance
Tree representation  custssnssn


account s name=tom

customer
 Example 1(cont)

customer(ssn, name, city)

account(custssn, balance)
“List account balances of Tom.”

balance

ssn=custssn

account s name=tom

customer
 Division Operator
Not supported as a primitive operator, but useful for expressing
queries like:
“Find sailors who have reserved all boats.”
Let A have 2 fields, x and y; B have only field y:
A/B contains all x tuples (sailors) such that for every y tuple
(boat) in B, there is an xy tuple in A Or : If the set of y values
(boats) associated with an x value (sailor) in A contains all y
values in B, the x value is in A/B.
• In general, x and y can be any lists of fields; y is the list of
fields in B , and xy is the list of fields of A
Division Example
 Example 1
STUDENT(Sno, Name, Major, Ddate)
COURSE(Cno, cname, Dept)
ENROLL(Sno, Cno, quarter, BISBN)
TEXT(BISBN, title, Publisher, Author)
1. List the names of courses taken by at least one
student with quarter =‘w99’
2. List any department that has all its books
published by ‘BPB’
 Example 1 cont…
SQL Solution:
SELECT dept FROM Course
WHERE cno IN (
(SELECT E.cno FROM Enroll E, Text T
WHERE E.BISBN = T.BISBN
AND T.Publisher = ‘BPB’)
MINUS
(SELECT E.cno FROM Enroll E, Text T
WHERE E.BISBN = T.BISBN
AND T.Publisher <>‘BPB’)
)
 Example 2
EMPLOYEE(eno, name, age, dno, salary)
WORK_ON(pno, eno)
PROJECT(pno, pname, location)
1. Display the names of projects at “Delhi”
2. Find the project name of employee whose salary
is greater than 10000.
3. Retrieve the name and eno of employee working
on pno =100.
 Example 3
SUPPLIER(sid, sname, saddr)
PARTS(pid, pname, color)
CATALOG(sid, pid, cost)
1. Find the name of all suppliers who supply yellow parts.
2. Find the name of suppliers who supply both blue and black
parts.
3. Find supplier ids who supply all parts.
4. Find supplier ids who do not supply red parts.
 Example 3 cont..
SQL Solution (2):
SELECT sname FROM Supplier S, Catalog C
WHERE S. sid = C.sid AND C.sid =
(SELECT C.sid FROM Catalog C, Part P WHERE
C.pid=P.pid and P.color= ‘Blue’)
INTERSECT
SELECT sname FROM Supplier S, Catalog C
WHERE S. sid = C.sid AND C.sid =
(SELECT C.sid FROM Catalog C, Part P WHERE
C.pid=P.pid and P.color= ‘Black’)
 Example 3 cont..
SQL Solution (3):
SELECT sid FROM Catalog GROUP BY sid
HAVING count(*) = (SELECT count(pid) FROM Parts)

SQL Solution (4):

SELECT sid FROM Catalog C, Parts P
WHERE C.pid = P.id
AND P.color<>’Red’
 Comparing RA and SQL
Relational algebra:
is closed (the result of every expression is a relation)
has a rigorous foundation
has simple semantics
is used for reasoning, query optimisation, etc.
SQL:
is a superset of relational algebra
has convenient formatting features, etc.
provides aggregate functions
has complicated semantics
is an end-user language.
Functional Dependencies
And
Normalization
 Schema Normalization
• Decompose relational schemes to
remove redundancy
remove anomalies
• Result of normalization:
Semantically-equivalent relational scheme
Represent the same information as the original
Be able to reconstruct the original from decomposed relations.

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 Functional Dependencies
• Motivation: avoid redundancy in database design.
Relation R(A1,...,An,B1,...,Bm,C1,...,Cl)
Definition: A1,...,An functionally determine B1,...,Bm,i.e.,
(A1,...,An B1,...,Bm)
iff for any two tuples r1 and r2 in R,
r1(A1,...,An ) = r2(A1,...,An )
implies r1(B1,...,Bm) = r2(B1,...,Bm)

• By definition: a superkey  all attributes of the relation.

• In general, the left-hand side of a FD might not be a superkey.

ICS184 53
 Example

Take(StudentID, CID, Semster, Grade)

FD: (StudentId,Cid,semester)  Grade
StudentId Cid Semester Grade
1111 ICS184 Winter 02 A
1111 ICS184 Winter 02 B Illegal
2222 ICS143 Fall 01 A-

What if FD: (StudentId, Cid)  Semester?

StudentId Cid Semester Grade
1111 ICS184 Winter 02 A
1111 ICS184 Spring 02 A Illegal
2222 ICS143 Fall 01 A-

“Each student can take a course only once.”

 FD Sets

• A set of FDs on a relation: e.g., R(A,B,C), {AB,

BC, AC, ABA}
• Some dependencies can be derived
e.g., AC can be derived from {AB, BC}.
• Some dependencies are trivial
e.g., ABA is “trivial.”

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 Trivial Dependencies

• Those that are true for every relation

• A1 A2…An  B1 B2…Bm is trivial if B’s are a subset of the
A’s.
• Example: XY  X (here X is a subset of XY)

• Called nontrivial if none of the B’s is one of the A’s.

• Example: ABC (i.e. there is no such attribute at right
side of the FD which is at left side also)
 Closure of FD Set
• Definition: Let F be a set of FDs of a relation R. We use
F+ to denote the set of all FDs that must hold over R, i.e.:
F+ = { X  Y | F logically implies X  Y}
• F+ is called the closure of F.
• Example: F = {AB, BC}, then AC is in F+.
• F+ could have many FDs!
Example:
Let F = {AB1, AB2, ..., ABn}, then any AY (Y is a subset of
{B1, B2, ..., Bn}) is in F+.
Cardinality of F+ is more than 2^n.
Fortunately, a given XY can be tested efficiently as we will see
later
 Armstrong’s Axioms: Inferring All FDs

Given a set of FDs F over a relation R, how to compute F+?

• Reflexivity:
– If Y is a subset of X, then X Y.
– Example: ABA, ABCAB, etc.

• Augmentation:
– If XY, then XZYZ.
– Example: If AB, then ACBC.

• Transitivity:
– If XY, and YZ, then XZ.
– Example: If ABC, and CD, then ABD.

58
 More Rules Derived from AAs

• Union Rule( or additivity):

If XY, XZ, then XYZ

• Projectivity
If XYZ, then XY and XZ

• Pseudo-Transitivity Rule:
If XY, WYZ, then WXZ
 Algo to find closure
To find the closure X+ of X under FDs in F
X+ = X (initialize X+ with X)
Change = true
While change do
Begin
Change = false
For each FD W  Z in F do
Begin
If W C X+ then
X+ = X+ U Z
Change= true
End if
End
End
 “Superkey”

• Using FDs, we can formally define superkeys.

• Given:
R(A1, A2, …,An): a relation
X: a subset of {A1, A2, …An}
F: a set of FDs on R
• X is a superkey of R iff XA1,A2, …,An is in F+.
Naïve algorithm to test if X is a superkey:
Compute F+ using AAs
If X A1,A2,…,An is in F+, then X is a superkey.
Better algorithm: check if A1,…,An are in X+.
 Find candidate keys

• Given a set F of FDs for a relation, how to find the candidate keys?
• One naïve approach: consider each subset X of the relation attribute, and
compute X+ to see if it includes every attribute.
• Tricks:
If an attribute A does not appear in any RHS in FD, A must be in every
candidate key
As a consequence, if A must be in every candidate key, and A  B is true, then
B should not be in any candidate key.
• Example:
R(A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H)
{A  B, ACD  E, EF  GH}
Candidate key: {ACDF}
 Equivalent FD Sets
• Two sets of FDs F and G are equivalent if F+ = G+,That is:
Each FD in F can be implied by G; and
Each FD in G can be implied by F
• Example:
F = {AB, BC, ABC}
G = {AB, BC} F and G are equivalent.
• F is minimal if the following is true. If any of the following operation is done,
the resulting FD set will not be equivalent to F
Any FD is eliminated from F; or
Any attribute is eliminated from the left side of an FD in F; or
Any attribute is eliminated from the right side of an FD in F.
E.g.: G (above) is a minimal set of FDs of F.

63
 Examples : Minimizing FDs
• Example 1:
F = {A  B, B  C, A  C}
Minimal: F’ = {A  B, B  C}
Remove redundant FD
• Example 2:
F = {A  B, B  C, AC  D}
Minimal: F’ = {A  B, B  C, A  D}
Remove attributes from LHS
• Example 3:
F = {A  B, B  C, A  CD}
Minimal: F’ = {A  B, B  C, A  D} Remove attributes from RHS

64
 The Normalization Process
• In relational databases the term normalization refers to a reversible
step-by-step process in which a given set of relations is
decomposed into a set of smaller relations that have a
progressively simpler and more regular structure.

• The objectives of the normalization process are:

To make it feasible to represent any relation in the database.

applies to First Normal Form
To free relations from undesirable insertion, update and deletion anomalies.
applies to all normal forms
 The Normalization Process

• The entire normalization process is based upon

the analysis of relations

their schemes
their primary keys
their functional dependencies.
 Normalization

Functional
dependency
No transitive
of nonkey
dependency
attributes on
between
the primary
nonkey Boyce- key - Atomic
attributes
Codd and values only

All
Higher Full
determinants Functional
are candidate dependency
keys - Single of nonkey
multivalued attributes on
dependency the primary
key
Relationship of Normal Forms
 Normal Forms

1st Normal Form No repeating data groups

2nd Normal Form No partial key dependency
3rd Normal Form No transitive dependency
Boyce-Codd Normal Form Reduce keys dependency
4th Normal Form No multi-valued
dependency
5th Normal Form No join dependency

1NF  2 NF  3 NF  BCNF  4 NF  5 NF
 Unnormalized Relations

• First step in normalization is to convert the data into a

two-dimensional table

• A relation is said to be unnormalized if does not conatin

atomic values.
 Eg of Unnormalized Relation
Patient # Surgeon # Surg. date Patient Name Patient Addr Surgeon Surgery Postop drug
Drug side effects

Gallstone
s removal;
Jan 1, 15 New St. Beth Little Kidney
145 1995; June New York, Michael stones Penicillin, rash
1111 311 12, 1995 John White NY Diamond removal none- none

Eye
Charles Cataract
Apr 5, Field removal
243 1994 May 10 Main St. Patricia Thrombos Tetracyclin Fever
1234 467 10, 1995 Mary Jones Rye, NY Gold is removal e none none
Dogwood
Lane Open
Jan 8, Harrison, David Heart Cephalosp
2345 189 1996 Charles Brown NY Rosen Surgery orin none
55 Boston
Post Road,
Nov 5, Chester, Cholecyst
4876 145 1995 Hal Kane CN Beth Little ectomy Demicillin none
Blind Brook Gallstone
May 10, Mamaronec s
5123 145 1995 Paul Kosher k, NY Beth Little Removal none none
Eye
Cornea
Replacem
Apr 5, Hilton Road ent Eye
1994 Dec Larchmont, Charles cataract Tetracyclin
6845 243 15, 1984 Ann Hood NY Field removal e Fever
 First Normal Form
• To move to First Normal Form a relation must
contain only atomic values at each row and column.
No repeating groups
Relation in 1NF contains only atomic
values.
 First Normal Form
• Three Formal definitions of First Normal Form

A relation r is said to be in First Normal Form (1NF) if and

only if every entry of the relation (each cell) has at most a
single value.

A relation is in first normal form (1NF) if and only if all

underlying simple domain contains atomic values only.

A relation is in 1NF if and only if all of its attributes are

based upon a simple domain.
These two definitions are equivalent.
If all relations of a database are in 1NF, we can say that the
database is in 1NF.
 Eg of First Normal Form

PROJECT The normalized representation of the PROJECT table

Proj Proj-Name Proj-Mgr- Emp-ID Emp- Emp-Dpt Emp-Hrly- Total
-ID ID Name Rate -Hrs
100 E-commerce 789487453 123423479 Heydary MIS 65 10
100 E-commerce 789487453 980808980 Jones TechSupport 45 6
100 E-commerce 789487453 234809000 Alexander TechSupport 35 6
100 E-commerce 789487453 542298973 Johnson TechDoc 30 12
110 Distance-Ed 820972445 432329700 Mantle MIS 50 5
110 Distance-Ed 820972445 689231199 Richardson TechSupport 35 12
110 Distance-Ed 820972445 712093093 Howard TechDoc 30 8
120 Cyber 980212343 834920043 Lopez Engineering 80 4
120 Cyber 980212343 380802233 Harrison TechSupport 35 11
120 Cyber 980212343 553208932 Olivier TechDoc 30 12
120 Cyber 980212343 123423479 Heydary MIS 65 07
130 Nitts 550227043 340783453 Shaw MIS 65 07
 First Normal Form

• This normalized PROJECT table is not a relation

because it does not have a primary key.

The attribute Proj-ID no longer identifies uniquely any row.

To transform this table into a relation a primary key needs
to be defined.
A suitable PK for this table is the composite key (Proj-ID,
Emp-ID)
No other combination of the attributes of the table will work
as a PK.
 Data Anomalies in 1NF Relations

• Redundancies in 1NF relations lead to a variety of data anomalies.

• Data anomalies are divided into three general categories of anomalies:
Insertion anomalies occur in this relation because we cannot insert information
about any new employee that is going to work for a particular department unless
that employee is already assigned to a project.
Deletion anomalies occur in this relation whenever we delete the last tuple of a
particular employee, We not only delete the project information that connects that
employee to a particular project but also lose other information about the
department for which this employee works.
Update anomalies occur in this relation because the department for which an
employee works may appear many times in the table.

It is this redundancy of information that causes the anomaly because if an employee

moves to another department, we are now faced with two problems:
We either search the entire table looking for that employee and update his/her
Emp-Dpt value
We miss one or more tuples of that employee and end up with an inconsistent
database.
 Partial Dependencies
• Identifying the partial dependencies in the PROJECT-
EMPLOYEE relation.

The PK of this relation is formed by the attributes Proj-ID

and Emp-ID.
This implies that {Proj-ID, Emp-ID} uniquely identifies a
tuple in the relation.
They functionally determine any individual attribute or any
combination of attributes of the relation.
However, we only need attribute Emp-ID to functionally
determine the following attributes:
Emp-Name, Emp-Dpt, Emp-Hrly-Rate.
 Second Normal Form
And we need only Proj-Id attribute to functionally determine proj_name and
Proj_Mgr_Id.
So we decompose the relation into following two relations:

PROJECT Proj- Proj- Proj-Mgr-

ID Name ID
100 E- 789487453
commerce
110 Distance- 820972445
Ed
120 Cyber 980212343
130 Nitts 550227043
 Second Normal Form
PROJECT-EMPLOYEE

Emp-ID Emp-Name Emp-Dpt Emp-Hrly-

Rate
123423479 Heydary MIS 65
980808980 Jones TechSupport 45
234809000 Alexander TechSupport 35
542298973 Johnson TechDoc 30
432329700 Mantle MIS 50
689231199 Richardson TechSupport 35
712093093 Howard TechDoc 30
834920043 Lopez Engineering 80
380802233 Harrison TechSupport 35
553208932 Olivier TechDoc 30
340783453 Shaw MIS 65
There are no partial dependencies in both the tables because
the determinant of the key only has a single attribute.
For eg:
Emp-Name
Proj-ID
Emp-Dpt

Emp-ID Emp-Hrly-Rate

To relate these two relations, we create a third table

(relationship table) that consists of the primary keys of both
the relations as foreign key and an attribute ‘Total-Hrs-
Worked’ because it is fully dependent on the key of the
relation {Proj-Id, Emp-Id}.
 Second Normal Form
A relation is said to be in Second Normal Form if is in 1NF and
when every non key attribute is fully functionally dependent on
the primary key.
Or No nonprime attribute is partially dependent on any key .

Now, the example relation scheme is in 2NF with following relations:

Project (Proj-Id, Proj-Name, Proj-Mgr-Id)

Employee (Emp-Id, Emp-Name, Emp_dept, Emp-Hrly-Rate )
Proj_Emp (Proj-id, Emp-Id, Total-Hrs-Worked)
 Data Anomalies in 2NF Relations

• Insertion anomalies occur in the EMPLOYEE

relation.

Consider a situation where we would like to set in

advance the rate to be charged by the employees of a new
department.
We cannot insert this information until there is an
employee assigned to that department.
Notice that the rate that a department charges is independent of
whether or not it has employees.
 Data Anomalies in 2NF Relations

• The EMPLOYEE relation is also susceptible to

deletion anomalies.

This type of anomaly occurs whenever we delete the tuple

of an employee who happens to be the only employee left
in a department.
In this case, we will also lose the information about the
rate that the department charges.
 Data Anomalies in 2NF Relations

• Update anomalies will also occur in the EMPLOYEE

relation because there may be several employees from
the same department working on different projects.

If the department rate changes, we need to make sure that

the corresponding rate is changed for all employees that
work for that department.
Otherwise the database may end up in an inconsistent state.
 Transitive Dependencies
• A transitive dependency is a functional dependency which holds by virtue of
transitivity. A transitive dependency can occur only in a relation that has three or more
attributes. Let A, B, and C designate three distinct attributes and following conditions
hold:
• A→B (where A is the key of the relation)
• B→C
• Then the functional dependency A → C (which follows from 1 and 3 by the axiom of
transitivity) is a transitive dependency.

• For eg: If in a relation Book is the key and

{Book} → {Author}
{Author} → {Nationality}
Therefore {Book} → {Nationality} is a transitive dependency.

• Transitive dependency occurs when a non-key attribute determines another

non-key attribute.
 Transitive Dependencies
• Assume the following functional dependencies of
attributes A, B and C of relation r(R):

C
 Third Normal Form
• A relation is in 3NF iff it is in 2NF and every non key attribute is non
transitively dependent on the primary key.

• A relation r(R) is in Third Normal Form (3NF) if and only if the following
conditions are satisfied simultaneously:
r(R) is already in 2NF.
No nonprime attribute is transitively dependent on the key.

• The objective of transforming relations into 3NF is to remove all transitive

dependencies.

• Given a relation R with FDs F, test if R is in 3NF.

Compute all the candidate keys of R
For each XY in F, check if it violates 3NF
If X is not a superkey, and Y is not part of a candidate key, then XY violates 3NF.
 Conversion to Third Normal Form

A* A*
B B
Convert to
C

B*
* indicates the key or the C
determinant of the relation.
 Third Normal Form

• Using the general procedure, we will transform our 2NF

relation example to a 3NF relation.
The relation EMPLOYEE is not in 3NF because there is a transitive
dependency of a nonprime attribute on the primary key of the relation.

In this case, the nonprime attribute Emp-Hrly-Rate is transitively

dependent on the key through the functional dependency Emp-Dpt 
Emp-Hrly-Rate.

To transform this relation into a 3NF relation:

it is necessary to remove any transitive dependency of a nonprime
attribute on the key.
It is necessary to create two new relations.
 Third Normal Form

The scheme of the first relation that we have named

EMPLOYEE is:

EMPLOYEE (Emp-ID, Emp-Name, Emp-Dpt)

The scheme of the second relation that we have named

CHARGES is:

CHARGES (Emp-Dpt, Emp-Hrly-Rate)

 Algorithm: decomposing R into 3NF

Input: a relation R with a set F of FDs

Output: a set of 3NF relations preserving F and do not lose info.

Step 1: Merge FDs with the same left-hand side.

Step 2: Minimize F and get F’
Step 3: For each X Y in F’, create a relation with schema XY
Step 4: Eliminate a relation schema that is a subset of another.
Step 5: If no relations contain a candidate key of R, create a relation
to include a candidate key of R.
 Data Anomalies in Third Normal Form

• The Third Normal Form helped us to get rid of the data anomalies
caused either by
transitive dependencies on the PK or
by dependencies of a nonprime attribute on another nonprime attribute.

• However, relations in 3NF are still susceptible to data anomalies,

particularly when
the relations have two overlapping candidate keys or
when a nonprime attribute functionally determines a prime attribute.
 Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF)

• A relation is in BCNF iff every determinant is a candidate key.

OR
• In other words, a relational schema R is in Boyce–Codd normal form if and
only if for every one of its dependencies X → Y, at least one of the following
conditions hold:
• X → Y is a trivial functional dependency (Y ⊆ X)
• X is a superkey for schema R

• The definition of 3NF does not deal with a relation that:

• has multiple candidate keys, where
• those candidate keys are composite, and
• the candidate keys overlap (i.e., have at least one common attribute)
 Example of BCNF

Candidate keys are (sid, part_id)

and (sname, part_id).
With following FDs: sname part_id
sname part_id
1. { sid, part_id }  qty
2. { sname, part_id }  qty sid
sid qty
qty
3. sid  sname
SSP
SSP
4. sname  sid

The relation is in 3NF:

For sid  sname, … sname is in a candidate key.
For sname  sid, … sid is in a candidate key.

However, this leads to redundancy and loss of information

 Example of BCNF
If we decompose the schema into
R1 = ( sid, sname ), R2 = ( sid, part_id, qty )
These are in BCNF.

The decomposition is dependency preserving.

{ sname, part_id }  qty can be deduced from

(1) sname  sid (given)

(2) { sname, part_id }  { sid, part_id } (augmentation on (1))
(3) { sid, part_id }  qty (given)

and finally transitivity on (2) and (3).

 3NF vs BCNF
• Only in rare cases does a 3NF table not meet the requirements of
BCNF. A 3NF table which does not have multiple overlapping
candidate keys is guaranteed to be in BCNF. Depending on what
its functional dependencies are, a 3NF table with two or more
overlapping candidate keys may or may not be in BCNF.

• If a relation schema is not in BCNF

it is possible to obtain a lossless-join decomposition into a
collection of BCNF relation schemas.
Dependency-preserving is not guaranteed.

• 3NF
There is always a dependency-preserving, lossless-join
decomposition into a collection of 3NF relation schemas.
 Properties of a good Decomposition

A decomposition of a relation R into sub-relations R1, R2,……., Rn

should possess following properties:

The decomposition should be

• Attribute Preserving ( All the attributes in the given relation must

occur in any of the sub – relations)
• Dependency Preserving ( All the FDs in the given relation must be
preserved in the decomposed relations)
• Lossless join ( The natural join of decomposed relations should
produce the same original relation back, without any spurious tuples).
• No redundancy ( The redundancy should be minimized in the
decomposed relations).
 Lossless Join Decomposition

The relation schemas { R1, R2, …, Rn } is a lossless-join

decomposition of R if:
for all possible relations r on schema R,
r = R1( r )  R2( r ) …   Rn ( r )
Example:
Student = ( sid, sname, major)
F = { sid  sname, sid  major}

{ sid, sname } + { sid, major } is a lossless join decomposition

the intersection = {sid} is a key in both schemas

{sid, major} + { sname, major } is not a lossless join decomposition

the intersection = {major} is not a key in either
{sid, major} or { sname, major }
 Another
Another Example
Example

R = { A, B, C, D }
F = { A  B, C  D }.
Key is {AC}.
introduce
Decomposition: { (A, B), (C, D), (A, C) } virtually
Consider it a two step decomposition:
1. Decompose R into R1 = (A, B), R2 = (A, C, D)
2. Decompose R2 into R3 = (C, D), R4 = (A, C)
This is a lossless join decomposition.

If R is decomposed into (A, B), (C, D)

This is a lossy-join decomposition.
 Checking Lossless Join Decomposition - α Test

Example 1: Let us consider a relation R(A,B,C,D,E)

With FDs
{A->BC, C->D, D->B, B->E, A->E}
Is decomposed into following 3 relations:
R1(A,B,C)
R2(C,D)
R3(B,D,E)
Then check the decompositions by test.
Initialize the table with α in the cell where an attribute exists for the corresponding relation as follows:

A B C D E A B C D E
R1 α α α R1 α α α α α
R2 α α R2 α α α α
R3 α α α R3 α α α
Now update the table while placing α and check whether any row contains α in all the columns. If so,
then the decomposition is lossless.

In this example the second table contains all α’s in the first row. So the decomposition is lossless.
 Fourth Normal Form
A relation R is in 4NF if and only if it satisfies following
conditions:
• If R is already in 3NF or in BCNF.
• If it contains no multi valued dependencies.

MVDs occur when two or more independent multi valued facts

about the same attribute occur within the same relation.

This means that if in a relation R, having A, B and C attributes,

B and C are multi valued represented as AB and AC, then
MVD exists only if B and C are independent of each other.
Example: 4NF
Example: 4NF
 Fifth Normal Form
• A relation R is in 5NF (also called Projection-Join Normal form or
PJNF) iff every join dependency in the relation R is implied by the
candidate keys of the relation R.

• A relation decomposed into two relations must have lossless join

property, which ensures that no spurious tuples are generated when
relations are reunited using a natural join.

• There are requirements to decompose a relation into more than two

relations. Such cases are managed by join dependency and 5NF.

• Implies that relations that have been decomposed in previous NF can be

recombined via natural joins to recreate the original relation.
 Fifth Normal Form
Consider the different case where, if an agent is an agent for a
company and that company makes a product, then he always sells
that product for the company. Under these circumstances, the 'agent
company product' table is as shown below . This relation contains
following dependencies.
Agent  Company
Agent  Product_Name
CompanyProduct_Name
 Fifth Normal Form
The table is necessary in order to show all the information required. Suneet, for
example, sells ABC's Nuts and Screws, but not ABC's Bolts. Raj is not an agent for
CDE and does not sell ABC's Nuts or Screws. The table is in 4NF because it contains
no multi-valued dependency. It does, however, contain an element of redundancy in
that it records the fact that Suneet is an agent for ABC twice. Suppose that the table is
decomposed into its two projections, PI and P2.

The redundancy has been eliminated, but the information about which companies
make which products and which of these products they supply to which agents has
been lost. The natural join of these two projections will result in some spurious tuples
(additional tuples which were not present in the original relation).
 Fifth Normal Form
This table can be decomposed into its three projections
without loss of information as demonstrated below .

If we take the natural join of these relations then we get the

original relation back. So this is the correct decomposition.
THANK YOU