Data Communication and

Networking Forouzan, Fth

Edition
Introduction to physical layer

Data and Signals

Analog and digital data
Aperiodic and periodic signals
Transmission impairment
 Analog and Digital
• Analog data refers to information that is continuous and take
on
continuous values.
• Digital data refers to information that has discrete states and take on
discrete values.
• Analog signals refer to infinitely many levels of intensity over a period
of time and can have an infinite number of values in a range.
• Digital signals can have only a limited number of values. But it can be as
simple as 0 and 1
Applications of Data and Signal changeover

Analog Data Analog Signal

Telephone

Digital Data Analog Signal

Modem

Analog Data Digital Signal

Codec

Digital Data Digital Signal

Digital
transmitter
 Periodic and Nonperiodic/aperiodic
• Periodic signal A signal that repeats the same pattern
over and over. For example, a simple wave like a sine
wave.
• The completion of one full pattern is called a cycle.
• A nonperiodic signal changes without exhibiting a
patter or cycle the repeats over time.

period
peak
amplitude
time

In data communications, we commonly use

periodic analog signals and nonperiodic digital signals.
 Periodic Signals

• Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or composite.

• A simple periodic analog signal, a sine wave, cannot be decomposed
into simpler signals.
• A composite periodic analog signal is composed of multiple sine waves.
• Data communication uses periodic signals due to the requirement of
lesser bandwidth.
 Periodic analog signal
signal strength
period
T = 1/f
peak
amplitude

time

• The sign wave can be represented by three

parameters: Peak Amplitude, Frequency and Phase.
• General form: x(t) = A×sin(2ft + )

10
 Peak Amplitude

• Peak amplitude is the absolute

value of its highest intensity,
proportional to the energy it
caries.

• Ex: Electric signals measured

in volts
 Time/Period and Frequency

• Frequency refers to the number of cycles completed by the

wave in one second.
• Frequency is formally expressed in Hertz (Hz), which is cycle
per second.

• Period refers to the time taken by the wave to complete one

second.
• Period is formally expressed in seconds.

Frequency and period are the inverse of each other.

Uwo signa‡s with the same amp‡itude, but different frequencies
 Frequency and Period
Units of period and
frequency

• Frequency is the rate of change with respect to time. Change in

a short span of time means high frequency. Change over a long
span of time means low frequency.
• If a signal does not change at all, its frequency is zero.
• If a signal changes instantaneously, its frequency is infinite.
 Time and frequency domain plots of
a sine wave
A complete sine wave in the time domain can be
represented by a single spike in the frequency domain.
Examples: period and frequency

The frequency domain is more compact and useful when we are dealing
with more than one sine wave.
For example, above figure shows three sine waves, each with different
amplitude
and frequency. All can be represented by spikes in the frequency domain.
 Phases
• Phase describes the position of the waveform relative to time zero.
• It also describes the amount of shift and status of the first cycle.
• It is measured in radians(360º is 2π rad, 1º is 2π/360 and 1 rad is
360/2π)
 Examp‡e

A sine wave is offset J/6 cyc‡e and ¼ cyc‡e with respect to time 0.
Uhat is its phase in degrees and radians?

So‡ution
U e know that J comp‡ete cyc‡e is 360°.

Uherefore, J/6 cyc‡e is

U e know that J comp‡ete cyc‡e is

360°.

Uherefore, J/4 cyc‡e is

J/4×360= 90
Phase Change
 Wavelength and period
Wavelength = Propagation speed x Period
= Propagation speed / Frequency

λ=c/f
Examp‡e
J. het us consider the speed of the ‡ight, that is 3× J0^8 meters/sec. Ff
a red ‡ight has a frequency of say 2 × J0^J4Nz. Uhat is the
wave‡ength of red ‡ight?

So‡ution:
λ=c/f= (3× J0^8)/(2 × J0^J4Nz)

2. het us consider the speed of the ‡ight, that is 3× J0^8 meters/sec.

Ff a green ‡ight has a wave‡ength of say 2 × J0^J4Nz. Uhat is the
frequency of green ‡ight?

So‡ution:
f=c/ λ = (3× J0^8)/(2 × J0^J4Nz)
 Composite signals
• For data communication a simple sine wave is not useful, what is used is a
composite signal which is a combination of many simple sine waves.
• A composite signal is made of many simple periodic or nonperiodic sine
waves.
• If we had only one single sine wave to convey a conversation over the
phone, it would make no sense and carry no information. We would
just hear a buzz. Hence, a single frequency sine wave is not
useful in data communications.
• we need to send a composite signal, a signal made of many simple sine
waves.
 Time and frequency domain plots of a
composite sine wave

• The frequency domain is more compact and useful when we are dealing
with more than one sine wave.
• A single-frequency sine wave is not useful in data communication.
• We need to send a composite signal, a signal made of many simple sine
waves.
 A composite periodic
signal
A composite periodic signal

Decomposition of the composite periodic

signal in the time and frequency domains
 Time and frequency domains of a
nonperiodic signal
A nonperiodic composite signal
• It can be a signal created by a microphone or a telephone set
when a word or two is pronounced.
• In this case, the composite signal cannot be periodic
• because that implies that we are repeating the same word or words with
exactly the same tone.
 Bandwidth
• The range of frequencies contained in a composite signal is
its bandwidth.
• But, we define the bandwidth of a composite signal is the difference
between the highest and the lowest frequencies contained in that signal.
• For example, if a composite signal contains frequencies between 1000 and
5000, its bandwidth is 5000 - 1000, or 4000.
 Examp‡
A e
nonperiodic composite signal has a bandwidth of 200
kHz, with a middle frequency of 140 kHz and peak
amplitude of 20 V. The two extreme frequencies have
an amplitude of 0. Approximately, draw the frequency
domain of the signal.

Solution
• Total is 200, so two half is 100Hz,
• But middle is 140kHz, hence
 lower frequency=140-100=40kHz
 highest frequency=140+100=240kHz
• The lowest frequency must be at 40 kHz and the
highest at 240 kHz.

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 DIGITAL SIGNALS

• In addition to being represented by an analog signal,

information can also be represented by a digital signal.
• For example, a <1= can be encoded as a positive voltage and a
<0= as zero voltage.
• A digital signal can have more than two levels. In this case,
we
can send more than 1 bit for each level.
 Examp‡e
1.As digital signal has 8 levels.
How many bits are represented by each level?

We calculate the number of bits from the formula

Each signal level is represented by 3 bits.

2. A digital signal has 9 levels. How many bits

are represented by each level?

Each signal level is represented by 3.17 bits. Not

realistic. The number of bits sent per level needs to
be an integer as well as a power of 2.
Hence, 4 bits can represent one level.
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 Digital Signal Properties
• Most digital signals are nonperiodic, and thus period and
frequency are not appropriate characteristics.
• Hence, we use bit rate (instead of frequency) to describe
digital signals.
• Bit rate 3 number of bits per second (bps)
• Bit interval/length 3 distance one bit occupies on the
transmission medium or it is a time required to send a single
bit.
Bit interval/length= propagation speed × bit duration
 Examp‡e
s
1.Assume we need to download files at a rate of 100
pages per second. A page is an average of 24 lines with
80 characters in each line where one character requires
8 bits. What is the required bit rate of the channel?

100*24*80*8=1,536,000bps

2.A digitized voice channel is made by digitizing a 4-

kHz bandwidth analog voice signal. We need to sample
the signal at twice the highest frequency (two samples
per hertz). Assume that each sample requires 8 bits.
What is the required bit rate?

2*4000*8=64,000bps=64kbps
 Examp‡e

HDTV uses digital signals to broadcast high quality

video signals. There are 1920 by 1080 pixels per
screen, and the screen is renewed 30 times per second.
Also, 24 bits represents one color pixel.
What is the bit rate for high-definition TV (HDTV)?

The TV stations reduce this rate to 20 to 40

Mbps through compression.
 Bandwidth of a Channel

• A channel is the medium through which the signal carrying

information will be passed.
• In terms of analog signal, bandwidth of the channel is the range
of frequencies that the channel can carry.
• In terms of digital signal, bandwidth of the channel is the maximum
bit rate supported by the channel. i.e. the maximum amount of
data that the channel can carry per second.
 Examp‡
e
What is the channel capacity if an extremely
noisy channel is considered, in which the value of
the signal- to-noise ratio is almost zero.
Solution

This meansthat the capacity of this channel is

zero regardless of the bandwidth.
We cannot receive any data through this channel.
 Objective

• Introduce the readers to fundamentals of data &

signal
• Types of data & signal
• Characteristics and nature of analog & digital signal
• Representation of signal
• Transmission of digital signals
 Introduction
• Computer networks are designed to transfer data from one
point to another.
• During transit, data is in the form of electromagnetic signals.
• Hence it is important to study data and signals before we
move to further concepts in data communication.
• Data is the information that conveys some meaning based on
some mutually agreed up rules/conventions between sender
and receiver.
• Data can be Analog Data or Digital Data
• Signals can be Analog Signal and Digital Signal
• Signal can be periodic and non-periodic/aperiodic
• Media can change the data to signals or vice versa.
 Digital Signal

Definition: A digital signal represents data using discrete values,

typically 0s and 1s.
•Characteristics:
• Discrete Values: Uses specific, separate levels.
• Precision: High accuracy and less prone to noise.
• Reproducibility: Can be easily copied and transmitted without
quality loss.
• Error Handling: Supports error detection and correction.
•Example: Binary signal alternates between high and low voltage to
represent 1s and 0s.
•Applications: Used in computers, digital communication, and
digital media.
Digital signals are ideal for modern technology due to their accuracy
and reliability.
 Digital Signal Bit Rate

Definition: The bit rate is the amount of data transmitted per second in a digital
signal, measured in bits per second (bps).
 Digital Signal Bit Length

Bit Length refers to the duration of one bit in a digital signal, which is the time
required to transmit a single bit. It is inversely related to the bit rate of the signal.

where:
•Bit Length is measured in seconds (s).
•Bit Rate is measured in bits per second (bps).
 Transmission of Digital Signals
1. Basic Concepts:
•Digital Signal: Represents data as discrete values (0s and 1s).
•Channel: Medium (cables, fiber optics, or wireless) used for transmission.
2. Key Components:
•Encoding: Converts data into a suitable digital format.
•Modulation: Adjusts the signal to fit the transmission medium (e.g., ASK, FSK,
PSK).
•Transmission Medium: Wired (e.g., cables) or wireless (e.g., radio waves).
•Reception: Receives and decodes the signal back into data.
•Error Handling: Detects and corrects errors using methods like checksums.
3. Types:
•Serial Transmission: Sends data one bit at a time (e.g., USB).
•Parallel Transmission: Sends multiple bits simultaneously (e.g., memory buses).
4. Bandwidth and Bit Rate:
•Bandwidth: Range of frequencies used; higher bandwidth allows higher data
rates.
•Bit Rate: Amount of data transmitted per second.
Summary: Digital signals are encoded, modulated, and transmitted through
various mediums. Reception involves decoding the signal, and error handling
ensures data integrity.
 Physical layer

To be transmitted,
data must be transformed to electromagnetic signals.
The Transmitter at Initiator side and Receiver at the
Destination side will receive signals through the transmission
media.
 Transmission Impairment

Impairment types
Attenuation
 Figure below shows the effect of attenuation and amplification.

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Part 3: Transmission Impairments

With any communications system, the signal that is received may differ from the
signal that is transmitted, due to various transmission impairments.
Consequences:
For analog signals: degradation of signal quality
For digital signals: bit errors
The most significant impairments include
Attenuation and attenuation distortion
Delay distortion
Noise

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Attenuation

Attenuation: signal strength falls off with distance.

Depends on medium
For guided media, the attenuation is generally exponential and thus is
typically expressed as a constant number of decibels per unit distance.
For unguided media, attenuation is a more complex function of distance
and the makeup of the atmosphere.
Three considerations for the transmission engineer:
1. A received signal must have sufficient strength so that the electronic
circuitry in the receiver can detect the signal.
2. The signal must maintain a level sufficiently higher than noise to be
received without error.

These two problems are dealt with by the use of amplifiers or

repeaters.
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 Transmission Impairment

Attenuation
Decibel
 To show that a signal has lost or gained strength, we use
the unit of the decibel.
 The decibel (dB) measures the relative strengths of two
signals or one signal at two different points.
 Note that the decibel is:
 Negative if a signal is attenuated and
 Positive if a signal is amplified.

 PI and P2 are the powers of a signal at points 1 and 2, respectively.

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 Transmission Impairment

Attenuation
Decibel
 Note that some books define the decibel in terms of
voltage instead of power.
 In this case, because power is proportional to the square
of the voltage, the formula is:
dB = 20 log 10 (V2 / V1)

45
 Transmission Impairment

Attenuation
Decibel
 Note that some books define the decibel in terms of
voltage instead of power.
 In this case, because power is proportional to the square
of the voltage, the formula is:
dB = 20 log 10 (V2 / V1)

46
 Transmission Impairment

Attenuation
Example
 Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium
and its power is reduced to one-half. This means that P2
= ½ P1.
 In this case, the attenuation (loss of power) can be
calculated as:
dB = 10 log10 (P2 / P1)
= 10 log10 (1/2 P1 / P1)
= 10 log10 (0.5))
= 10 (-0.3)
dB = -3
47
Attenuation Distortion

(Following the previous slide)

3. Attenuation is often an increasing function of frequency. This leads to

attenuation distortion:
• some frequency components are attenuated more than other frequency
components.

Attenuation distortion is particularly noticeable for analog signals: the

attenuation varies as a function of frequency; therefore, the received signal is
distorted, reducing intelligibility.

48
Delay Distortion

Delay distortion occurs because the velocity of propagation of a signal through a

guided medium varies with frequency.
Various frequency components of a signal will arrive at the receiver at different
times, resulting in phase shifts between the different frequencies.
Delay distortion is particularly critical for digital data
Some of the signal components of one bit position will spill over into other bit
positions, causing intersymbol interference, which is a major limitation to maximum bit
rate over a transmission channel.

49
 Transmission Impairment

Distortion
 Distortion means that the signal changes its form or
shape.
 Distortion can occur in a composite signal made of
different frequencies.
 Each signal component has its own propagation speed through
a medium and, therefore, its own delay in arriving at the final
destination.
 Differences in delay may create a difference in phase if the
delay is not exactly the same as the period duration.
 In other words, signal components at the receiver have phases
different from what they had at the sender.
 The shape of the composite signal is therefore not the same.

Due to propagation speeds

50
 Transmission Impairment

Distortion
 Figure below shows the effect of distortion on a
composite signal.

51
Noise (1)

For any data transmission event, the received signal will consist of the transmitted signal,
modified by the various distortions imposed by the transmission system, plus additional
unwanted signals that are inserted somewhere between transmission and reception.
The undesired signals are referred to as noise, which is the major limiting factor in
communications system performance.
Four categories of noise:
Thermal noise
Intermodulation noise
Crosstalk
Impulse noise

52
Noise (2)

Thermal noise (or white noise)

Due to thermal agitation of electrons
It is present in all electronic devices and transmission media, and is a function of temperature.
Cannot be eliminated, and therefore places an upper bound on communications system
performance.
Intermodulation noise
When signals at different frequencies share the same transmission medium, the result may be
intermodulation noise.
Signals at a frequency that is the sum or difference of original frequencies or multiples of
those frequencies will be produced.
E.g., the mixing of signals at f1 and f2 might produce energy at frequency f1 + f2. This
derived signal could interfere with an intended signal at the frequency f1 + f2.

53
Noise (3)

Crosstalk
It is an unwanted coupling between signal paths. It can occur by electrical coupling between
nearby twisted pairs.
Typically, crosstalk is of the same order of magnitude as, or less than, thermal noise.
Impulse noise
Impulse noise is non-continuous, consisting of irregular pulses or noise spikes of short duration
and of relatively high amplitude.
It is generated from a variety of cause, e.g., external electromagnetic disturbances such as
lightning.
It is generally only a minor annoyance for analog data.
But it is the primary source of error in digital data communication.

54
 Transmission Impairment

Noise

 Noise is another cause of impairment.

 Several types of noise, such as thermal noise, induced
noise, cross-talk, and impulse noise, may corrupt the
signal.
 Thermal noise is the random motion of electrons in a wire which
creates an extra signal not originally sent by the transmitter.
 Induced noise comes from sources such as motors and
appliances.
 These devices act as a sending antenna, and the transmission
medium acts as the receiving antenna.
 Cross-talk is the effect of one wire on the other. One wire acts
as a sending antenna and the other as the receiving antenna.
 Impulse noise is a spike (a signal with high energy in a very
short time) that comes from power lines, lightning, and so on.

55
 Transmission Impairment

Noise

 Figure shows the effect of noise on a signal.

56
 Transmission Impairment

Noise

 Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)

 To find the theoretical bit rate limit, we need to know the
ratio of the signal power to the noise power.
 The signal-to-noise ratio is defined as:
SNR = average signal power / average noise power

 We need to consider the average signal power and the

average noise power because these may change with
time.

57
 Transmission Impairment

Noise
 Figure shows the idea of SNR

58
 Transmission Impairment

Noise

 Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)

 SNR is actually the ratio of what is wanted (signal) to

what is not wanted (noise).
 A high SNR means the signal is less corrupted by noise;
 A low SNR means the signal is more corrupted by noise.

 Because SNR is the ratio of two powers, it is often

described in decibel units, SNRdB, defined as:
SNRdB = 10 log10 SNR

59
Note

Bandwidth utilization is the wise use of

available bandwidth to achieve
specific goals.

Efficiency can be achieved by

multiplexing; privacy and anti-jamming
can be achieved by spreading.

6.73
6-1 MULTIPLEXING
Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two
devices is greater than the bandwidth needs of the
devices, the link can be shared. Multiplexing is the set
of techniques that allows the simultaneous
transmission of multiple signals across a single data
link. As data and telecommunications use increases, so
does traffic.
Topics discussed in this section:
Frequency-Division Multiplexing
Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
Synchronous Time-Division Multiplexing
Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing
6.74
Figure 6.1 Dividing a link into
channels

6.75
Figure 6.2 Categories of
multiplexing

6.76
Figure 6.3 Frequency-division
multiplexing

6.77
Note

FDM is an analog multiplexing technique

that combines analog signals.

6.78
Figure 6.4 FDM
process

6.79
Figure 6.5 FDM demultiplexing
example

6.80
Figure 6.10 Wavelength-division
multiplexing

6.81
Note

WDM is an analog multiplexing

technique to combine optical signals.

6.82
Figure 6.12
TDM

6.83
Note

TDM is a digital multiplexing technique

for combining several low-rate
channels into one high-rate one.

6.84
Note

In synchronous TDM, the data rate

of the link is n times faster, and the unit
duration is n times shorter.

6.85
Figure 6.16 Example
6.8

6.86
Figure 6.19 Multilevel
multiplexing

6.87
6-1 SPREAD SPECTRUM
In spread spectrum (SS), we combine signals from
different sources to fit into a larger bandwidth, but our
goals are to prevent eavesdropping and jamming. To
achieve these goals, spread spectrum techniques add
redundancy.

Topics discussed in this section:

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Synchronous (DSSS)

6.88
Figure 6.27 Spread
spectrum

6.89
Figure 6.28 Frequency hopping spread spectrum
(FHSS)

6.90
Figure 6.29 Frequency selection in
FHSS

6.91
Figure 6.30 FHSS cycles

6.92
Figure 6.31 Bandwidth
sharing

6.93
Figure 6.32 DSSS

6.94
Figure 6.33 DSSS
example

6.95
Modes of transmission
Simplex: Directionality: one-way communication.
Usage: suitable for applications where feedback is not necessary.
Examples: broadcast TV, keyboard input to a computer.
Half-duplex:

Directionality: two-way communication, but not at the same time.

Usage: useful in scenarios where both parties need to communicate
but not simultaneously.
Examples: walkie-talkies, CB radios.

Full duplex:

Directionality: two-way communication that allows simultaneous

transmission.
Usage: ideal for real-time communication where both parties can
speak and listen at the same time.
Examples: telephone calls, modern ethernet connections.
Bandwidth utilization

Bandwidth utilization measures how effectively the available bandwidth is used for
data transmission. High utilization means the bandwidth is being used efficiently,
while low utilization indicates potential waste.
Key factors:

Traffic load:
Amount of data being sent through the network. High traffic can lead to congestion
and lower utilization.

Protocol overhead:
extra data needed for establishing connections, error-checking, etc. High overhead
can reduce effective bandwidth.

Latency:
delay in data transmission. High latency can affect the overall throughput and
responsiveness.
Error rates:
Higher error rates can lead to retransmissions, reducing effective bandwidth.
Network configuration:
the setup and topology of the network can impact utilization. Efficient routing and
switching improve performance.

Optimization techniques:
Data compression:
Reducing the size of data before transmission to increase throughput.

Traffic shaping:
Prioritizing certain types of traffic to ensure critical applications get the necessary
bandwidth.

Multiplexing:
combining multiple data streams into one signal over a shared medium, optimizing
the use of bandwidth.
Load balancing:

Distributing network traffic across multiple paths or servers to improve utilization

and reduce congestion.

Summary

Understanding the modes of transmission and how to optimize bandwidth utilization

is crucial for designing efficient communication systems.