NERVOUS SYSTEM

Parts of a neuron
Neurons vary in size, shape, and structure depending on their role and location. However, nearly
all neurons have three essential parts: a cell body, an axon, and dendrites.
Cell body
Also known as a soma, the cell body is the core section of the neuron. The cell body contains
genetic information, maintains the neuron’s structure, and provides energy to drive activities.
Like other cell bodies, a neuron’s soma contains a nucleus and specialized organelles. It’s
enclosed by a membrane that both protects it and allows it to interact with its immediate
surroundings.
Axon
An axon is a long, tail-like structure. It joins the cell body at a specialized junction called the axon
hillock. Many axons are insulated with a fatty substance called myelin. Myelin helps axons to
conduct an electrical signal.
Neurons usually have one main axon.
Dendrites
Dendrites are fibrous roots that branch out from the cell body. Like antennae, dendrites receive
and process signals from the axons of other neurons. Neurons can have more than one set of
dendrites, known as dendritic trees.
How many they have generally depends on their role. For instance, Purkinje cells are a special
type of neuron found in a part of the brain called the cerebellum. These cells have highly
developed dendritic trees which allow them to receive thousands of signals.
Types of neurons
Neurons vary in structure, function, and genetic makeup. Given the sheer number of neurons,
there are thousands of different types, much like there are thousands of species of living
organisms on Earth.
However, there are five major neuron forms. Each combines several elements of the basic neuron
shape.

•Multipolar neurons. These neurons have a single axon and symmetrical dendrites that extend
from it. This is the most common form of neuron in the central nervous system.
•Unipolar neurons. Usually only found in invertebrate species, these neurons have a single
axon.
•Bipolar neurons. Bipolar neurons have two extensions extending from the cell body. At the end
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•Purkinje neurons. Purkinje neurons have multiple dendrites that fan out from the cell body.
These neurons are inhibitory neurons, meaning they release neurotransmitters that keep other
neurons from firing.
Classification in terms of functions
Sensory neurons
Sensory neurons help you:
•taste
•smell
•hear
•see
•feel things around you
Sensory neurons are triggered by physical and chemical inputs from your environment. Sound,
touch, heat, and light are physical inputs. Smell and taste are chemical inputs.
For example, stepping on hot sand activates sensory neurons in the soles of your feet. Those
neurons send a message to your brain, which makes you aware of the heat.
Motor neurons
Motor neurons play a role in movement, including voluntary and involuntary movements. These
neurons allow the brain and spinal cord to communicate with muscles, organs, and glands all over
the body.
• There are two types of motor neurons: lower and upper. Lower motor neurons carry signals from
the spinal cord to the smooth muscles and skeletal muscles.
• Upper motor neurons carry signals between your brain and spinal cord.
When you eat, for instance, lower motor neurons in your spinal cord send signals to the smooth
muscles in your esophagus, stomach, and intestines. These muscles contract, which allows food to
move through your digestive tract.
Interneurons
• Interneurons are neural intermediaries found in your brain and spinal cord. T
• hey’re the most common type of neuron. They pass signals from sensory neurons and other
interneurons to motor neurons and other interneurons. Often, they form complex circuits that
help you to react to external stimuli.
• For instance, when you touch something sharp like a cactus, sensory neurons in your fingertips
send a signal to interneurons in your spinal cord.
• Some interneurons pass the signal on to motor neurons in your hand, which allows you to move
your hand away. Other interneurons send a signal to the pain center in your brain, and you
experience pain.
Glial cells
Glia are non-neuronal cells (i.e. not nerves) of the brain and nervous system. There are
a variety of subtypes of glial cells, including astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and microglia, each
of which is specialised for a particular function.
Glia do not fire action potentials, and because of this, were previously thought to be little
more than housekeepers that ensured neurons could function properly
This view is now shifting, and astrocytes in particular are recognised as key components
of synapses that can influence how we process information.
What’s the difference between neurons and glia?
Neurons have axons and dendrites. However, glia,
unlike neurons, cannot generate action potentials
(also known as spikes, or nerve impulses).

Neuroglia make up about half the volume of the CNS. Their name derives from the idea of early histologists that they
were the “glue” that held nervous tissue together. Generally, neuroglia are smaller than neurons, and they are 5 to 25
times more numerous.
In cases of injury or disease, neuroglia multiply to fill in the spaces formerly occupied by neurons. Brain tumors derived
from glia, called gliomas, tend to be highly malignant and to grow rapidly.
Of the six types of neuroglia, four—astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, and ependymal cells— are found only in the
CNS. The remaining two types—Schwann cells and satellite cells—are present in the PNS
Microglia
• Microglia are the brain’s immune cells, serving to protect it against
injury and disease. Microglia identify when something has gone wrong
and initiate a response that removes the toxic agent and/or clears
away the dead cells.

• Thus microglia are the brain’s protectors. However, the situation may
be different in neurodegenerative disorders such as
Alzheimer’s disease—there is evidence that microglia may become
hyperactivated, promoting neuroinflammation that can lead to the
characteristic toxic protein deposits seen in Alzheimer’s (amyloid
plaques and neurofibrillary tangles).

• Finally, recent work shows that microglia play a role in the developing
brain. Normally, far more synapses are created than are needed, with
only the strongest, most important ones surviving. Microglia directly
contribute to this synaptic ‘pruning’ process by eating up the synapses
These neuroglia are small cells with slender processes that give off numerous spinelike projections. Microglial cells or
microglia (mī-KROG-lē-a; micro- = small) function as phagocytes. Like tissue macrophages, they remove cellular debris
formed during normal development of the nervous system and phagocytize microbes and damaged nervous tissue.
Macroglia

Astrocytes
• Astrocytes are star-shaped cells that maintain a neuron’s working
environment. They do this by controlling the levels of neurotransmitter
around synapses, controlling the concentrations of important ions like
potassium, and providing metabolic support.
• But astrocytes don’t just maintain the environment around synapses.
An active area of research addresses how astrocytes modulate how
neurons communicate.
• Because astrocytes have the ability to sense neurotransmitter levels in
synapses, and can respond by releasing molecules that directly
influence neuronal activity, astrocytes are increasingly seen as
important for modifying synapses.
ASTROCYTES These star-shaped cells have many processes and are the largest and most numerous of the neuroglia.
There are two types of astrocytes (AS-trō-sīts; astro- = star; -cyte = cell). Protoplasmic astrocytes have many short
branching processes and are found in gray matter (described shortly). Fibrous astrocytes have many long unbranched
processes and are located mainly in white matter (also described shortly). The processes of astrocytes make contact with
blood capillaries, neurons, and the pia mater (a thin membrane around the brain and spinal cord).

1. Astrocytes contain microfilaments that give them considerable strength, which enables them to support neurons.
2. 2. Processes of astrocytes wrapped around blood capillaries isolate neurons of the CNS from various potentially
harmful substances in blood by secreting chemicals that maintain the unique selective permeability characteristics of
the endothelial cells of the capillaries. In effect, the endothelial cells create a blood–brain barrier, which restricts the
movement of substances between the blood and interstitial fluid of the CNS

3. In the embryo, astrocytes secrete chemicals that appear to regulate the growth, migration, and interconnection among
neurons in the brain.
4. Astrocytes help to maintain the appropriate chemical environment for the generation of nerve impulses. For example,
they regulate the concentration of important ions such as K+; take up excess neurotransmitters; and serve as a conduit for
the passage of nutrients and other substances between blood capillaries and neurons.
5. Astrocytes may also play a role in learning and memory by influencing the formation of neural synapses
• Oligodendrocytes provide support to axons of
neurons in the central nervous system,
particularly those that travel long distances
within the brain.
• They produce a fatty substance
called myelin, which is wrapped around
axons as a layer of insulation. Similar in
function to insulation layers around power
cables, the myelin sheath allows electrical
messages to travel faster, and gives white
matter its name—the white is the myelin
wrapped around axons.
• Multiple sclerosis is caused by a loss of the
myelin sheath around neurons.
• Major glial cells in the brain include
oligodendrocytes (blue), astrocytes (green)
and microglia (maroon).
• Neurons are shown in yellow, with the blue of
oligodendrocytes forming the myelin sheath
around the axon.
Other types of macroglia
Central Nervous System

•Ependymal cells: Ependymal cells line the spinal cord and ventricles of the
brain. They are involved in creating cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
These cells line the ventricles of the brain and central canal of the spinal cord
(spaces filled with cerebrospinal fluid, which protects and nourishes the brain and
spinal. Functionally, ependymal cells produce, possibly monitor, and assist in the
circulation of cerebrospinal fluid. They also form the blood–cerebrospinal fluid
barrier
Peripheral Nervous System
•Schwann cells: Similar to oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system,
Schwann cells myelinate neurons in the peripheral nervous system.
•These cells encircle PNS axons. Like oligodendrocytes, they form the myelin
sheath around axons. A single oligodendrocyte myelinates several axons, but
each Schwann cell myelinates a single axon. A single Schwann cell can also
enclose as many as 20 or more unmyelinated axons (axons that lack a myelin
sheath). Schwann cells participate in axon regeneration, which is more easily
accomplished in the PNS than in the CNS.

•Satellite cells: Satellite cells surround neurons in the sensory, sympathetic

and parasympathetic ganglia and help regulate the chemical environment.
They may contribute to chronic pain.
•SATELLITE CELLS These flat cells surround the cell bodies of neurons of
PNS ganglia. Besides providing structural support, satellite cells regulate the
exchanges of materials between neuronal cell bodies and interstitial fluid.
Myelination of Nerves
In CNS and PNS
Axons are a key component of a neuron, they conduct electrical signals in the form of an action
potential from the cell body of the neuron to its axon terminal where it synapses with another
neuron.
An axon is insulated by a myelin sheath throughout its length to increase the velocity of these
electrical signals allowing signals to propagate quickly.
Axons which are covered by a myelin sheath, a multilayer of proteins and lipids, are said to
be myelinated. If an axon is not surrounded by a myelin sheath, it is unmyelinated. Myelination is
Myelination
the formation
Myelination is of
thea formation
myelin sheath.
of a myelin sheath. Myelin
sheaths are made of myelin, and myelin is produced by
different types of neuroglia: oligodendrocytes and Schwann
cells, where
• oligodendrocytes myelinate axons in the central nervous
system,
Myelinogenesis
• and Schwann continues throughout axons
cells myelinate the lifespan
in the to support
peripheral
learning and system.
nervous memory via neural circuit plasticity as well as
remyelination following injury. Successful myelination of axons
increases action potential speed by enabling saltatory conduction,
which is essential for timely signal conduction between spatially
separate brain regions, as well as provides metabolic support to
neurons.
Stages

Oligodendrocytes in the Central Nervous System (CNS)

In the CNS, oligodendrocytes are responsible for myelinating axons. Here are the stages of their development and
myelination process:
Stages of Oligodendrocyte Development:
•Oligodendrocyte Progenitor Cells (OPCs): These are immature, undifferentiated cells that originate in the neural tube.
They migrate to their designated areas in the CNS and proliferate.
•Pre-oligodendrocytes: OPCs differentiate into pre-oligodendrocytes, which have limited ability to myelinate. During this
phase, they further mature and interact with axons.
•Mature Oligodendrocytes: Once fully differentiated, mature oligodendrocytes extend their processes to wrap around
multiple axons, forming the myelin sheath. A single oligodendrocyte can myelinate up to 50 axons in the CNS.

Myelination in the CNS:

•Initiation: Begins early in development (in humans, around mid-gestation) and continues into adulthood. It is closely
regulated by signalling molecules from neurons and astrocytes, which control oligodendrocyte maturation.
•Formation of Myelin Sheath: Mature oligodendrocytes wrap their plasma membranes around axons, forming multiple
layers of myelin.
•Maintenance and Repair: Even after the initial formation, oligodendrocytes help maintain the integrity of the myelin
sheath throughout life. In cases of injury or disease (e.g., multiple sclerosis), remyelination can occur, although it may be
incomplete or insufficient.
Schwann Cells and Myelination in the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
In the PNS, Schwann cells are responsible for myelination. The process is similar to that in the CNS but with key
differences.
Stages of Schwann Cell Development:
•Schwann Cell Precursors: These cells are derived from neural crest cells and migrate along peripheral nerves during
embryonic development.
•Immature Schwann Cells: Schwann cell precursors mature into immature Schwann cells that surround bundles of axons.
They can either become myelinating Schwann cells or non-myelinating Schwann cells.
•Mature Myelinating Schwann Cells: When interacting with large-diameter axons, immature Schwann cells differentiate
into myelinating Schwann cells, wrapping themselves around a single axon.

Myelination in the PNS:

•Initiation: Myelination in the PNS begins later in development compared to the CNS, typically after birth in humans.
•Formation of Myelin Sheath: Unlike oligodendrocytes, a Schwann cell can only myelinate a single axon. It wraps its
plasma membrane around the axon, forming concentric layers of myelin. Small-diameter axons are not myelinated but
are still ensheathed by non-myelinating Schwann cells.
•Nodes of Ranvier: Similar to the CNS, gaps between Schwann cells, called Nodes of Ranvier, are crucial for the rapid
propagation of nerve impulses.
•Regeneration and Repair: Schwann cells are involved in repairing peripheral nerves after injury. They play an important
role in remyelination and axon regeneration in the PNS, which is more robust compared to the CNS.