EECS 3101

Prof. Andy Mirzaian

STUDY MATERIAL:

• [CLRS] chapters 22, 23, 24, 25, 26

• Lecture Note 10
• Algorithmics Animation Workshop:
 Dijkstra – Single Source Shortest Paths
 Minimum Spanning Tree
 Max-Flow Min-Cut
 Traveling Salesman

2
 TOPICS
 Graph Representations

 Graph Traversals:
 Breadth First Search
 Depth First Search

 Un-weighted Graphs:
 Topological Sort
 Strongly Connected Components
 Bi-connected Components

 Weighted Graphs:
 Minimum Spanning Trees
 Shortest Paths
 Max Flow
 Matching

3
 GRAPH
REPRESENTATIONS

4
 Graph
Graph G = (V, E)
V = V(G) = vertex set of G
E = E(G) = edge set of G ( a set of pairs of vertices of G)

Undirected graph: edges are unordered pairs of vertices:

1 2 3
V = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 }

E = {(1,2), (1,4), (1,5), (2,3), (2,5), (3,5), (4,5)}

4 5 6

Directed graph (or digraph): edges are ordered pairs of vertices:

1 2 3
V = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 }

E = { (1,2), (1,4), (1,5), (3,2),

4 5 6 (4,4), (4,5), (5,1), (5,2), (5,3)}
5
 Edge Weighted Graph
G = (V, E, w)
w: E  
|

13 -16
1 2 3
E = {(1,2,13), (1,4,14), (1,5,17),
14 17 21 (2,3,-16), (2,5,21), (3,5,18), (4,5,23)}
18
23
4 5 6 e.g., w(1,5) = w(5,1) = 17.

13 -16
1 2 3
14 E = { (1,2,13), (1,4,14), (1,5,15), (3,2,-16)
14 15 21 (4,5,23), (5,1,14), (5,2,21), (5,3,18)}
18
4 23 5 6 e.g., w(1,5) = 15, w(5,1) = 14.

6
 Adjacency Matrix
1 if (i, j)  E(G)
A[ i , j]   , for i, j  V(G).
0 otherwise

1 2 3 4 5 6
1 0 1 0 1 1 0
2 1 0 1 0 1 0
1 2 3 A= 3 0 1 0 0 1 0
4 1 0 0 0 1 0
5 1 1 1 1 0 0
4 5 6 6 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 2 3 4 5 6
1 0 1 0 1 1 0
1 2 3 2 0 0 0 0 0 0
A= 3 0 1 0 0 0 0
4 0 0 0 1 1 0
4 5 6 5 1 1 1 0 0 0
6 0 0 0 0 0 0 7
 Weighted Adjacency Matrix
 w ( i , j) if (i, j)  E(G)

A[ i , j]   0 if i  j, (i, j)  E(G) , for i, j  V(G).
  otherwise
 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 0 6  9 2 
6 8 2 6 0 8  5 
1 2 3 A= 3  8 0  -6 
-6 4 9   0 4 
9 2 5
5 2 5 -6 4 0 
4 5 6 6      0
4
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 0 6  9 3 
6 8
1 2 3 2  0    
A= 3  8 0   
7
9 3 5 -6
4    0 4 
5 7 5 -6  0 
4 4 5 6
6      0
8
 (Weighted) Adjacency List Structure
Adj[ i ] {  j, w ( i , j)  | ( i , j)  E ( G ) }, for i  V(G).
Adj
6 1 2 6 4 9 5 2
8
1 2 3 2 1 6 3 8 5 5
-6 3 2 8 5 -6
9 2 5
4 1 9 5 4
4 5 6 1 2 2 5 3 -6 4 4
4 5
6

Adj
6 8 1 2 6 4 9 5 3
1 2 3
2
7
9 3 5 -6 4 3 2 8 6 4

4 5 4
4 4 5 6
5 1 7 2 5 3 -6

6 9
 The Hand-Shaking Lemma
Vertex vV(G): degree (or valance) , in-degree, out-degree

Undirected G: deg(v) = | { u | (v,u)  E(G) } | = | Adj[v] |

Digraph G: outdeg(v) = | { u | (v,u)  E(G) } | = | Adj[v] |

indeg(v) = | { u | (u,v)  E(G) } |
deg(v) = outdeg(v) + indeg(v)

The Hand-Shaking Lemma:

For any graph (directed or undirected) we have:

 deg( v )  2 | E | .
v V ( G )

For any directed graph we also have:


v V ( G )
indeg( v )   outdeg( v )  | E | .
v V ( G )
10
Adjacency Matrix vs Adjacency List Structure

Adjacency Adjacency
complexity
Matrix List

# memory cells Space O(V2) O(V + E)

Initialize structure O(V2) O(V + E)

Scan (incident edges of) all

vertices O(V2) O(V + E)
Time

List vertices adjacent to uV(G) O(V) O(|Adj[u]|)

Is (u,v)  E(G)? O(1) O(|Adj[u]|)

11
BREADTH FIRST SEARCH

Generalizes level-order traversal on trees.

12
 BFS Properties
 A simple linear-time graph search algorithm with many applications.
 Generalizes the level-order traversal on trees.
 G = (V,E) a given directed or undirected graph.
 Given a source sV, BFS explores all parts of G that are reachable from s.
 Discovers (visits) each vertex u in order of its un-weighted distance d(u) from s.
 This distance is the length of the un-weighted shortest path from s to u.

s
s
d(s)=0

p(u)
d(p(u))

u
d(u) = 1+d(p(u))
13
 How BFS works
Greedy Choice:
s Scan the oldest
d(s)=0
frontier node.

Q: How?
Scanned nodes (BLACK) A: Maintain
AY) frontier
R nodes
(G
des in a Queue
r no Q
ntie (FIFO
F ro
d(u) u List).

Iteratively
dequeue a vertex u
Unexplored nodes & scan it:
(WHITE) v
visit every
p(v) = u unexplored vertex v
d(v) = 1+d(u) adjacent to u.

14
 How BFS works
Greedy Choice:
s Scan the oldest
d(s)=0
frontier node.

Q: How?
Scanned nodes (BLACK) A: Maintain
AY) frontier nodes
R in a Queue Q
(G
des (FIFO List).
r no
ntie Iteratively
F ro
d(u) u dequeue a vertex
u & scan it:
visit every
unexplored
Unexplored nodes vertex v adjacent
v
(WHITE) Enqueueto u.
newly
p(v) = u discovered nodes.
d(v) = 1+d(u)
Frontier advances.
15
 BFS Algorithm
Algorithm BFS( G, s )
1. for each vertex v  V(G) do § initialize
color[v], d[v], p[v]  WHITE, , nil

2. color[s], d[s]   GRAY, 0 § s is the first

frontier vertex
3. Q  ; Enqueue(s, Q)

4. while Q   do §
advance frontier
5. u  Dequeue(Q) § u = earliest
visited frontier node
6. for each vertex v  Adj[u] do § scan u: explore every
edge (u,v)
7. if color[v] = WHITE then do § visit
unexplored adjacent node v
8. color[v], d[v], p[v]  GRAY, 1+d[u], u
9. Enqueue(v, Q) § v is a
new frontier node 16
 Digraph G: BFS Tree:

0 
1 
2

s= 11 22 3 1

2 4 5
1

1 44 5 6 2


33 6 7

7 8 9
9
2
  
3

DONE12453679
SCAN:
Q
9 7 6 3 5 4 2 1

17
 Undirected graph G: BFS Tree:
0 1 2 1
s= 1 2 3

2 4 5 7

1
1 4 5 6 2 8 9
3 6

7 8 9
1 2 2

18
 BFS Running Time
WHIT GRA BLAC
E
Algorithm BFS( G, s )
Y K
1. for each vertex v  V(G) do
• The only way that a node becomes 2. color[v], d[v], p[v]  WHITE, ,
gray & hence enters Q is when it was nil
white (lines 2-3-4, 8-9-10). 3. color[s], d[s]   GRAY, 0
4. Q  ; Enqueue(s, Q)
• So, each node enters Q at most once 5. while Q   do
(& only if it was reachable from s). 6. u  Dequeue(Q)
7. for each vertex v  Adj[u] do
• Thus, a node u is removed from Q 8. if color[v] = WHITE then
at most once (line 6). do
9. color[v], d[v],
• So, a node u is scanned at most once p[v]  GRAY, 1+d[u], u
& becomes black (lines 7-13). 10. Enqueue(v, Q)
This takes O(1+|Adj[u]|) time.
11. end-if
• Therefore, the total time is: 12. end-for
13. color[u]  BLACK
   
O  V   1 | Adj[ u ] |   O  V14. 
 end-while
1  | Adj[ u ] |   O ( V  E ).
 u V ( G )   end uV ( G ) uV ( G ) 
19
 More BFS Properties
FACT 2:
For each edge (u,v)  E(G) we have d[v]  1 + d[u].
Furthermore, if G is undirected, then | d[u] – d[v] |  1.
Proof sketch: By the time u becomes black (is scanned), v must have been visited
(if not earlier). …
If G is undirected, then (u,v) = (v,u).

FACT 3: BFS Edge Types:

Each traversed edge (u,v)E(G) could be a tree-edge or a non-tree edge
with respect to the BFS. There are 3 possible types of non-tree edges:

1. BFS tree-edge: u = p[v]

2. Back-edge: v is a BFS ancestor of u (possibly u itself)

3. Forward-edge: v is a BFS proper descendant of u (not a tree edge).

This case will never happen by FACT 2!

4. Cross-edge: u & v are not ancestor-descendant of each other wrt BFS tree.
20
 BFS Tree = Shortest Path Tree rooted at source
FACT 4: For each node v in the BFS tree,
the tree path from root s to v is the un-weighted shortest path from s to v in
G.
(Nodes that are not in the BFS tree are not reachable from s.)
More specifically, we have:
Algorithm PrintPath(v)
p[v] = parent of v in the BFS tree if v = nil then return
= predecessor of v on its shortest path from s PrintPath(p[v])
(nil, if v is not reachable from s), print v
end
d[v] = length of shortest path from s to v in G
( if v is not reachable from s). if v s
0
Proof: Let v be a node reachable from s in G. Then, d[ v ]  
1  d[ π[v]] if v s
But that is the solution to the shortest path equations:
0 if v s
d[ v ]  
 min u {1  d[u] | (u, v)  E(G)} if v s
because, by Fact 2: (u,v)E(G), we have d[v]  1+d[u].
(The state of nodes not reachable from s is obvious.) 21
 Graph Coloring
G = an undirected graph.

Graph Coloring:
Let k be a positive integer.
G is k-colorable if each node of G can be colored by one of at most k colors such
that for each edge (u,v) E(G), color(u)  color(v).
(This problem has long history and many applications.)

A 3-coloring of the Peterson graph:

(It is not 2-colorable.)

1-colorable  E(G) = 
2-colorable: also easy to detect (see next slides)
3-colorable: is hard to detect (see NP-completeness)

Kn needs n colors.
All planar graphs are 4-colorable.
22
 Bipartite Graphs
G = an undirected graph.

Bipartiteness:
G is bipartite if V(G) can be partitioned into two disjoint subsets X and Y such
that for each edge (u,v)E(G), either uX & vY, or vX & uY.

X Y

23
FACT 5: Let G be an undirected graph. The following statements are equivalent:
1. G is bipartite,
2. G is 2-colorable,
3. G has no odd-length cycle,
4. In BFS of G, for every edge (u,v)E(G), we have | d[u] – d[v] | = 1.
These can be tested in O(V+E) time (constructive proof).
Proof:
[(1)  (2)]: Let (X,Y) be a bipartition of V(G). Color nodes in X with color 1, and nodes in
Y with color 2.

[(2)  (3)]: If G is 2-colorable, then vertices of any cycle have alternate colors.
Hence, the cycle has even length.

[(3)  (4)]: By Fact 2 we know that for each edge (u,v), |d[u] – d[v]|  1.
If d[u] = d[v] (i.e., they are at the same BFS tree level), then
edge (u,v) plus the tree paths from each of u and v to their
lowest common ancestor form an odd-length cycle.
u v
A contradiction.

[(4)  (1)]: Do BFS of each connected component of G: Set

V1 = { u V(G) | d[u] is even }, V2 = { u V(G) | d[u] is odd }.
(V1 , V2 ) is a valid bipartition of G. 24
DEPTH FIRST SEARCH

Generalizes preorder and postorder traversal on trees.

25
 DFS Properties
 Another simple linear-time graph search algorithm with many applications.
 Generalizes the pre-order and post-order traversals on trees.
 G = (V,E) a given directed or undirected graph.

 DFS creates a forest of node-disjoint trees with non-tree edges between nodes.
Pick an unvisited node as the root of the next DFS tree and advance the search.

 Greedy Choice:
within the same DFS tree, advance the search from the most recent visited node.

 Recursive DFSvisit(u):
explores nodes in the sub-tree rooted at u
(the nodes reachable from u that are still unexplored at the time u gets visited).

 DFS(u) recursive call is active  u is an ancestor of the most recent visited node.

 [ d[u], f[u] ] = DFS time stamp for node u:

d[u] = start time of DFSvisit(u),
f[u] = finishing time of DFSvisit(u).

26
 DFS Algorithm
Algorithm DFS(G)
1. time  0
2. for each vertex u  V(G) do color[u], p[u]  WHITE, nil
3. for each vertex u  V(G) do
if color[u] = WHITE then DFSvisit(u) § u is root of next DFS
tree
end

Procedure DFSvisit(u)
4. d[u]  time  time + 1 § DFSvisit(u) discovery
time
5. color[u]  GRAY § u is visited
6. for each vertex v  Adj[u] do § explore edge (u,v)
7. if color[v] = WHITE then do § visit unexplored
adjacent node v
8. p[v]  u § (u,v)
is a DFS tree-edge
9. DFSvisit(v) § v is
most recent visited node
10. end-if 27
 a b c d

G:
e f g h

[1,12 ] d [13,16]
DFS(G): a

h [14,15]
[2,11 ] b

[3, 4 ] c [5, 8 ] f g

[9,10 ]

e Tree drawing convention

[6, 7 ] Downward & left-to-right
28
 a b c d e f

G:
g h i j k

[1,16] a e [17,22]
DFS(G):

[2,15]
b f [18,21]

[3,10]
g [11,14]
c
k [19,20]

[4,7] d i h [12,13]

[8,9]
Each edge is traversed twice (once in each direction).
[5,6] j The first traversal of each edge is:
downward if it’s a tree-edge; upward otherwise. 29
 DFS Running Time
Algorithm DFS(G) Procedure DFSvisit(u)
1. time  0 4. d[u]  time  time + 1
2. for each vertex uV(G) do color[u], p[u]  WHITE, nil 5. color[u]  GRAY
3. for each vertex uV(G) do 6. for each vertex vAdj[u] do
if color[u] = WHITE then DFSvisit(u) 7. if color[v] = WHITE then do
end 8. p[v]  u
9. DFSvisit(v)
10. end-if
WHIT GRA BLAC
11. end-for
E Y K 12. color[u]  BLACK
13. f[u]  time  time + 1
end

• DFSvisit(u) is called exactly once for each node u.

• Excluding recursive calls, DFSvisit(u) takes O(1+|Adj[u]|) time.
• Therefore, the total time is:

   
O  V   1 | Adj[ u ] |   O  V   1   | Adj[ u ] |   O ( V  E ).
 u V ( G )   u V ( G ) u V ( G ) 

30
 The Parenthesis Theorem (PT)
The Parenthesis Theorem (PT):
1. For all nodes u: d[u] < f[u].
[d[u], f[u]] is activation time interval of DFSvisit(u).
2. For every pair of nodes u & v, their time intervals [d[u],f[u]] and [d[v],f[v]] are
either disjoint or one encloses the other (no partial overlap).
3. u is a DFS ancestor of v if and only if
[d[u],f[u]] encloses [d[v],f[v]], that is, d[u]  d[v] < f[v]  f[u].

Proof: u w
Consider DFS sub-trees Tu and Tv rooted at u & v, respectively.
Tu and Tv are either completely disjoint, or one includes the other.
Their DFSvisit activation time intervals will behave accordingly.
v
In the illustrative figure to the right,
[d[u],f[u]] encloses [d[v],f[v]],
but is disjoint from [d[w],f[w]].
31
 The White-Path Theorem (WPT)
The White-Path Theorem (WPT):
Node u is a DFS ancestor of node v if and only if
when u is discovered, there is a path of all white nodes from u to v.
Proof [of ]:
The nodes on the DFS tree path from u to v are all white at the activation time of DFSvisit(u).

Proof [of ]:

P = an all white-node path from u to v when DFSvisit(u) is called.
Claim: v will be visited before DFSvisit(u) is finished, i.e., v will become a descendant of u.
Proof of Claim: by induction on length of P:
Basis ( |P| = 0): Obvious; u=v.
Ind. Step (|P| > 0): Let w be successor of u on P.
During DFSvisit(u), when wAdj[u] is considered, if w is still white, it will get visited &
becomes a descendant of u.
So, some node on P, other that u, becomes a descendant of u.
Consider the last node x of P that becomes a descendant of u.
The sub-path P’ of P from x to v is strictly shorter than P and is all white when x is discovered.
So, by the induction hypothesis, v becomes a descendant of x, which is a descendant of u.
[Note: P is not necessarily the DFS tree path from u to v! Where is that in the proof?] 32
 DFS Edge Classification of Digraphs
At the time edge uv is traversed, we have the following possibilities:

v back-edge:
u tree-edge:
color[v] = GRAY
color[v] = WHITE
v

Tree drawing convention

u forward-edge: Downward & left-to-right
color[v] = BLACK
& v u u v
d[u] < d[v]
v

cross-edge:
cross-edge:
color[v] = BLACK
& color[v] = WHITE
d[v] < d[u] Impossible by WPT!33
 DFS Finishing Times
DiGraph: state of edge uv at the completion of DFS:
u

f[u] > f[v]: v v v u

tree-edge forward-edge cross-edge

f[u]  f[v]:
u

back-edge
34
DFS Edge Classification of Undirected Graphs
Undirected Graph: only 2 types of edges:
tree-edges &
back-edges.
v

f[u] > f[v]

u
f[u]  f[v]
v
u

tree-edge
back-edge

Cross edge: impossible by the White Path Theorem.

So each edge is between an ancestor-descendant pair.

Such non-tree edges are called back-edges by convention
(the first time they are traversed from descendant towards ancestor).
35
 The Cycle Theorem
The Cycle Theorem: [G = a directed or undirected graph]

G has a cycle if and only if DFS(G) has a back-edge.

Proof [of ]:
A back-edge from u to v followed by the DFS tree path from v to u forms a cycle.

Proof [of ]:

Suppose there is a cycle C in G.
Among the nodes on C, let u be the one with minimum f[u].
Let v be the successor of u on C.
Then f[u]  f[v] by the choice of u.
So, edge (u,v) is a back-edge.

For undirected graphs there is a simpler argument:

without back-edges, we are left with a forest of trees. Trees are acyclic.

36
TOPOLOGICAL SORT

Linearly Order a Partially Ordered Set

37
 Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG)
a b c d
DAG G:

e f g h

 DAG = digraph with no directed cycles.

 Modeling applications:
 generalization of layered digraphs
 reachability paths in a DAG form a partial order on nodes
(reflexive, anti-symmetric, transitive)
 tasks with precedence constraints
 job sequencing
 Topological ordering of a DAG G:
A linear ordering of V(G) such that
(u,v)E(G), u appears before v in the linear order.

a b d h g c f e

38
 Topological Sort Algorithm 1

FACT 1:
A DAG G has at least one vertex with in-degree 0 (& one vertex with out-degree 0).
Proof:
G has no cycles  all paths in G have finite length (no node can repeat on a path).
Let P be a longest path in G.
Suppose P starts at node u and ends in node v.
indeg(u) = outdeg(v) = 0 (otherwise, we can extend P to a longer path).
a b c d
indeg(a) = 0
Example DAG: indeg(d) = 0
e f g h outdeg(e) = 0

TOPOLOGICAL SORT ALGORITHM 1:

• Find a node u with in-degree 0.
• Remove u and all its out-edges from G. A smaller DAG remains.
• Add u to the end of the linear order.
• Iterate this process until there is no more node remaining in G.
EXERCISE: Give an O(V+E)-time implementation of this algorithm. 39
 Topological Sort Algorithm 2

FACT 2: Reverse DFS Post-Order, i.e., reverse DFS finishing time is

a topological order on a DAG.
Proof:
For any edge uv in digraph G:
f[u]  f[v]  uv is a back edge.

DAG G has no cycles, hence no back-edges.

So, for every edge uv in DAG G: f[u] > f[v].

Linearly order nodes in decreasing order of f[.].

See implementation & example on the next page.

40
 Topological Sort Algorithm 2
In O(V + E) time do a DFS of G with the following modification:
Push nodes into an initially empty stack S when they become black
(i.e., an added line at the end of DFSvisit).
At the end of DFS(G): repeatedly pop(S); nodes come out in topological order.

DAG G: DFS(G):
e
a e
e a b
f
a
f f
c d b b
d
c d S: c

A topological ordering of G:

e f a b d c
41
STRONGLY CONNECTED
COMPONENTS

42
 Graph Connectivity
 How well is a graph connected?
 Connectivity issues arise in communication & transportation networks.
 Identify bottlenecks in case parts of the network break down or malfunction.
 Fault tolerance in distributed networks.

 Digraph Connectivity:
 Semi-connectivity:
can every pair of nodes have at least one-way communication?

 Strong connectivity (discussed next)

can every pair of nodes have two-way communication?

 Un-directed graph Connectivity:

 Edge/Node connectivity (discussed in the following section)
How many edges/nodes need to be removed to disconnect the graph?

43
 Digraph Strong Connectivity
a b c a b c h

d f d
e e f

g
g
Strongly Connected:
There is a directed path 3 Strongly Connected Components
from any node to any other node.

a b SCC Component Graph

is a DAG:
abd ch
e f
c d

NOT Strongly Connected: g

there is no path from d to a.
44
 Strongly Connected Components
 Reachability: u  v.
~~
v is reachable from u, i.e., there is a directed path from u to v.
- Reflexive
- Transitive

 Mutual Reachability: u   v : u and v are mutually reachable,

~~

i.e., u ~~ v & v ~~ u.

- Reflexive
- Symmetric  equivalence relation on V(G)
- Transitive
   partitions V(G) into equivalence classes.
~~

 Strongly Connected Components of G:

Subgraphs of G induced by these equivalence classes.
 Remaining edges are called cross-component edges.
45
 a a
G:
b c G T: b c

e e
d f d f

g h i j g h i j
a
DFS(G): b By the WPT
every node of an SCC
c falls within the same DFS tree.

e f
So, each DFS tree is
d the union of one or more
SCC’s
h i
g j How can we disentangle them?
46
• SCC roof = the node x with minimum d[x] among all nodes of the SCC
(nodes d, f, e, a in the example below).
• WPT  all nodes of an SCC are DFS descendants of its roof.
•  SCC roof x has maximum f[x] among all nodes of the SCC.

• No path can re-enter an SCC after leaving it.

• SCC roofs are scanned (colored BLACK) in reverse topological order
of the SCC Component Graph.

a a How to disentangle SCCs:

DFS(G): b
b
S: c Do 2nd DFS, this time on GT,
c e the reverse of G,
f but pick DFS tree roots in
i reverse of the above
e f “reverse topological order”.
d j
d
This requires stacking of
h i h nodes in the 1st DFS as in
g j g Topological Sort Algorithm 2.
47
 a a a
DFS(G): b
b G T: b c
S: c
e
c e
f d f
i
e f j
d
d g h i j
h i h
g j
g

a e f d
DFS(GT):
c j g

i
b h

48
 a
G:
b c Topological Sort
e of the
d f SCC Component Graph of G:

ac f j dg
e
b i h
g h i j

a e f d
DFS(GT):
c j g

i
b h

49
 SCC Algorithm – Kosaraju-Sharir [1978]
Algorithm StronglyConnectedComponents(G)
1. Initialize stack S to empty, and call DFS(G) with the following modifications:
push nodes onto stack S when they finish their DFSvisit calls.
I.e., at the end of the procedure DFSvisit(u) add the statement “Push(u,S)”.
(There is no need to compute d[u] & f[u] values explicitly.)

2. Construct the adjacency list structure of GT from that of G.

3. Call DFS(GT) with the following modification: initiate DFS-roots in

stack-S-order, i.e., in the main DFS(GT) algorithm, instead of
“for each vertex uV(GT) do if color[u] = WHITE then do
DFSvisit(u)”
perform the following:
while S   do
u  Pop(S)
if color[u] = WHITE then do DFSvisit(u)
end-while

4. Each DFS-tree of step 3 (plus all edges between its nodes) forms an SCC.
SCCs are discovered in topological order of the SCC Component Graph of G.
end 50
FACT 1: Each DFS tree T of DFS(GT) consists of a single SCC.
Proof: x

1) Among nodes in T, root x has max f[.] (wrt 1st DFS(G)). T:

It came out of stack S before any other node in T.
2) Among the nodes in T, let y be the one with min d[.] y
(wrt 1st DFS(G)).
3) P = the tree path in T (and GT) from x to y.
4) PT is a path in G from y to x.
5) (2)  PT was an all-white path in DFS(G) when y was discovered.
6) (5) + WPT  x is a descendant of y in DFS(G).
7) (6) + PT  f[x]  f[y] (wrt 1st DFS(G)).
8) (1) + (7)  f[x] = f[y]  x = y.
9) (1)+(2)+(8)  node uT: d[x]  d[u] < f[u]  f[x] (wrt 1st
DFS(G)).
10) (9) + PT  node uT: u is a descendant of x in 1st DFS(G).
11) (10)  node uT: x ~~ u in G.
12) node uT: x ~~ u in GT. 51
FACT 1: Each DFS tree T of DFS(GT) consists of a single SCC.

FACT 2: In DFS(GT), the DFS trees (i.e., SCCs) are discovered in topological
order of the SCC Component Graph of G.

Proof:
In DFS(GT), each DFS tree is an SCC (by Fact 1).

Cross-component edges, in GT, go from a node in a DFS tree to a node in an earlier

DFS tree (i.e., from right to left).

Reverse cross-component edges of GT to conform to G (i.e., from left to right). □

THEOREM: The algorithm correctly finds the SCCs in topological order of the
SCC Component Graph of G in O(V + E) time.

52
Bi-CONNECTED
COMPONENTS
We must all hang together,
or assuredly we shall hang separately.
Benjamin Franklin

53
 Node Connectivity
undirected graph G = (V, E) & integer k  0.
G is k-connected (or k-node-connected):
if removal of fewer than k nodes (& all their incident edges) cannot disconnect G.

0-connected 1-connected 2-connected 3-connected

but not but not but not but not
1-connected 2-connected 3-connected 4-connected

FACT 1: G is k-connected if and only if between every pair of its nodes there are
at least - node-disjoint paths (excluding their common end points).

Balinski’s Theorem [1961]:

The node-edge skeleton of a k dimensional polytope is k-connected.
54
 BiConnectivity
Suppose G = (V, E) is connected.
An articulation point is a node whose removal will disconnect G.

a b

e
c
f
d

FACT 3: xV is an articulation point of G if there are two distinct nodes u & v in
G distinct from x, such that every path between u & v passes through x.

FACT 4: G is biconnected  G has no articulation points.

55
 Biconnected Components
 An equivalence relation on E:
e1 , e2  E: e1  e2 if and only if reflexive
e1 e2
symmetric
1. e1 = e2 , or
transitive
2. There is a simple cycle that contains e1 and e2 .

 Equivalence relation  partitions E into equivalence classes

E1 , E2 , … , Ek , for some k.

 Vi = set of vertices of Ei , i = 1..k.

 Biconnected Components of G: Gi = (Vi , Ei ) , i = 1..k.

56
 Example
a b

c e f
d g

h j k
i

l m n o

a b

c e e f f
d g

k
i
h j k
i i

l m n o
57
 Biconnected Components & Articulation Points
FACT 5: Let Gi = (Vi , Ei ) , i = 1..k, be biconnected components of G. Then,
1. Gi is biconnected , for i = 1..k,
2. Vi  Vj has at most one node, for i  j,

3. node xV is an articulation point of G  x  Vi  Vj for some i  j.

Proof of (1): Gi cannot have an articulation point, say x:

Gi

e1 e2
u x v

58
 Biconnected Components & Articulation Points
FACT 5: Let Gi = (Vi , Ei ) , i = 1..k, be biconnected components of G. Then,
1. Gi is biconnected , for i = 1..k,
2. Vi  Vj has at most one node, for i  j,

3. node xV is an articulation point of G  x  Vi  Vj for some i  j.

Proof of (2): Gi and Gj cannot have more than one point in common, say x and y:
x

Gi Gj

y 59
 Biconnected Components & Articulation Points
FACT 5: Let Gi = (Vi , Ei ) , i = 1..k, be biconnected components of G. Then,
1. Gi is biconnected , for i = 1..k,
2. Vi  Vj has at most one node, for i  j,

3. node xV is an articulation point of G  x  Vi  Vj for some i  j.

Proof of (3): [  ]:
Suppose x is an articulation point of G, lying on every path between u & v.
Consider one such path, and let e1 and e2 be the two edges on the path incident to x.

e1 e2
u x v

Then, e1  e2 .
So, e1  Ei and e2  Ej for some i  j.
Therefore, x  Vi  Vj for some i  j.
60
 Biconnected Components & Articulation Points
FACT 5: Let Gi = (Vi , Ei ) , i = 1..k, be biconnected components of G. Then,
1. Gi is biconnected , for i = 1..k,
2. Vi  Vj has at most one node, for i  j,

3. node xV is an articulation point of G  x  Vi  Vj for some i  j.

Proof of (3): [  ]:
x

v
Gi u Gj

61
 Apply DFS
DFS is particularly useful in finding the a
biconnected components of a graph, because in
b
the DFS there are no cross edges; only tree- and
back-edges. c

A back-edge (u,v) forms a simple cycle with the e

DFS tree path between u and v.

d g i
Hence, all edges of that cycle are equivalent
and belong to the same biconnected component. f h j

k
a
k l
b c i j l
m
d m n
g
e o
n o
f h
62
 Articulation Points & DFS
FACT 6: Node u is an articulation point  either 1 or 2 holds:
1. u is a DFS root with at least 2 children, or
2. u is not root, but it has a child v such that there is no back-edge between any
descendant of v (including v) and any ancestor of parent p[u] of u (including p[u]).

root
1 u root 2
Removal of u
disconnects
v w p[u] v & p[u].
u

v
No cross-edges.
Removal of u
disconnects v & w.

63
 DFS “low” Computation
 Do a DFS and for each node uV(G) compute: root
 DFS pre-order numbering of node u.
x

FACT 7:.

64
 Articulation Points & DFS “low” numbers
FACT 8: Node u is an articulation point  either 1 or 2 holds:
1. u is a DFS root with at least 2 children, or
2. (u is not root &)  a child v of u such that low[v]  pre[u].

pre low

[1,1] a

[2,1] b

low[e]  pre[d] [3,1] c

[4,2] d

g
[5,4] e [7,2]
low[h]  pre[g]
[6,4] f h [8,7]

i
[9,7]
65
 Stack up edges
[1,1] a
 Stack up each edge (u,v)
at its 1st traversal, i.e., if [2,1] b
v  p[u] & pre[v] < pre[u].
 Articulation points discovered [3,1] c
in post-order of child-node. [4,2] d
 Pop-up the stack g
up to (u,v), inclusive, when [5,4] e [7,2]
u = p(v) & low(v)  pre[u].
[6,4] f h [8,7]
top (i, g) [9,7]
(i, g) i
(h, i)
(f, d) POP (f, d) (h, i)
(g,h) (g, h)
(e, f) (e, f) (g, h)
(d, e) (d,e) (d, e) (g, b) (g, b) (g, b)
(c, d) (d, g) (d, g) (d, g)
(c, a) (c, d) (c, d) (c, d) (c, d)
(b, c) (c, a) (c, a) (c, a) (c, a)
(a, b) (b, c) (b, c) (b, c) (b, c)
bottom (a, b) (a, b) (a, b) (a,b) (a, b) 66
 BiConnectivity Algorithm – Hopcroft [1972]
Algorithm BiConnectivity (G) § O(V
+ E) time
1. S   ; time  0
§ assume no isolated nodes
2. for each vertex u  V(G) do pre[u], p[u]  0, nil
3. for each vertex u  V(G) do if pre[u] = 0 then SearchBC(u)
end
Procedure SearchBC(u)
4. pre[u]  low[u]  time  time + 1
5. for each vertex v  Adj[u] do
6. if v  p[u] & pre[v] < pre[u] then Push((u,v), S)
§ 1st traversal of (u,v)
7. if pre[v] = 0 then do
8. p[v]  u
§ (u,v) is a tree-edge
9. SearchBC(v)
10. if low[v]  pre[u] then PrintBC(u,v)
11. low[u]  min { low[u] , low[v] }
12. else if v  p[u] then low[u]  min { low[u] , pre[v] } § (u,v) is
a back-edge
13. end-for
end 67
 MINIMUM
SPANNING TREES

68
 What is an undirected tree?
Let T be an undirected graph on n nodes.
The following statements are equivalent:
1. T is a tree.
2. T is connected and acyclic.
3. Between each pair of nodes in T there is a unique simple path.
4. T is connected and has n –1 edges.
5. T is acyclic and has n –1 edges.
6. T is minimally connected: removal of any edge will disconnect T.
7. T is maximally acyclic: addition of any new edge will create a simple cycle.

69
 The MST Problem
INPUT: A weighted connected undirected graph G = (V, E, w).

OUTPUT: A Minimum Spanning Tree (MST) T of G.

Feasible Any spanning tree of G,

Solutions: i.e., a subgraph of G that is a tree and spans (i.e., includes) V.

Objective: Minimize Cost(T) = sum of the weights of edges in T.

a a
a 3 5 3
5 3
b c b c
b c 2
2 7 4
7 4
4
e d e d
e d 8
8
Minimum spanning tree T Another spanning tree T’
G Cost(T’) = 3+5+4+8 = 20
Cost(T) = 3+2+4+7 = 16

70
 MST Preliminaries
Applications:
• Optimum cost network interconnection (connected & acyclic)
• Minimum length wiring to connect n points
• Sub-problem to many other problems

FACT:
• A connected undirected graph has at least one spanning tree (e.g., the DFS tree).
• So, a connected weighted undirected graph has an MST.

Caley’s Theorem: Kn, the complete graph on n nodes, has nn-2 spanning trees.

K4
For example: has 42 = 16 spanning trees.

71
 A CUT
• If S is a set and e an element, then S+e denotes S  {e}, & S-e denotes S – {e}.
• An edge e is incident to subgraph (or subset of vertices) H,
if exactly one end of e is in H.
• A cut C = (X,Y) is a partitioning of V(G) into two non-empty subsets X and Y.
Cross-edges of C are edges in E(G) that are incident to X (and also to Y).

X Y

72
 MST Properties
2 3 4
a b c d a b c d

5 4 3 8 6 3 7

e f g h e f g h
6 2 6
8 7 3 9
4 5 5
i j k l i j k l
9 8 6

G T = MST of G

• T + (j,k) has a unique simple cycle.

What is the maximum edge weight on that cycle?
What is the range of values for w(j,k) while T remains an MST?

• T – (f,g) is disconnected.
Its two connected components induce a cut in G.
What is the minimum weight cross-edge of that cut?
What is the range of values for w(f,g) while T remains an MST?
73
 A Generic Greedy Strategy
 Assume initially all edges of G are white (undecided).
 We will iteratively select a white edge and make a permanent greedy decision,
either coloring it blue (accepted) or red (rejected).
 This is done according to the following two rules, whichever applies:

 BLUE Rule: Consider a cut C with no blue cross-edges.

Then select a minimum weight white cross edge of C and color it blue.

 RED Rule: Consider a cycle C with no red edges. Proofs

Then select a maximum weight white edge of C and color it red.
coming
 Red-Blue Invariant: At all times, there is an MST of G that up
includes all blue edges and excludes all red edges.

 Progress: either no white edge remains, or at least one of the two rules applies.

 In |E(G)| iterations all edges are colored blue/red. The blue edges form the MST.

 There are many MST algorithms, and virtually all of them are specializations of
this generic greedy strategy depending on how the two rules are applied. 74
 Generic MST Algorithm
Pre-Cond: input is a connected undirected weighted graph Greedy
G method

color all edges of LI & exit-cond

Pre-Cond & & LoopCode 
G white
PreLoopCode
 LI LI ???

LI: Red-Blue-Invariant
Color one more edge red/blue
LI & exit-cond by applying either

PostLoopCond  white NO
the Red-Rule or
edge
YES the Blue-Rule,
whichever applies.
blue edges form an MST of G
PostLoopCond
& PostLoopCode return blue edges MP = # white edges
 Post-Cond
???
Post-Cond: output is an MST of
75
G
 Must prove 3 things:

LI & exit-cond & Blue-Rule applied  LI

LI & exit-cond & Red-Rule applied  LI

Progress: If there is a white edge, then

at least one of the 2 rules is applicable

76
 LI & exit-cond & Blue-Rule applied  LI
Proof:
• There is an MST T that includes all blue edges and excludes all red edges.
• Suppose Blue-Rule is applied to cut (X,Y) that contains no blue cross-edges,
and minimum weight white edge e of cut (X,Y) is colored blue.
• If e  T, then T still satisfies the LI.
• Suppose e  T. e’T
• T + e contains a unique simple cycle C.
There must be at least one other (white) edge
e’  TC that crosses the cut (X,Y).
(Why does e’ exist & is white?) eT
So, w(e)  w(e’).
X Y
• T’  (T + e) – e’ now satisfies LI:
 T’ is also a spanning tree of G.
 T’ includes all blue edges (e among them) and excludes all red edges.
 Cost(T’) = Cost(T) + w(e) – w(e’)  Cost(T).
So, T’ is also an MST. 77
 LI & exit-cond & Red-Rule applied  LI
Proof:
• There is an MST T that includes all blue edges and excludes all red edges.
• Suppose Red-Rule is applied to cycle C that contains no red edges,
and maximum weight white edge e of C is colored red.
• If eT, then T still satisfies the LI.
• Suppose eT. e’T
• T – e is disconnected and induces a cut (X,Y).
There must be at least one other (white) edge C
e’  C that crosses the cut (X,Y).
(Why does e’ exist & is white?) eT
So, w(e’)  w(e).
X Y
• T’  (T + e’) – e now satisfies LI:
 T’ is also a spanning tree of G.
 T’ includes all blue edges and excludes all red edges (e among them).
 Cost(T’) = Cost(T) + w(e’) – w(e)  Cost(T).
So, T’ is also an MST. 78
Progress: If there is a white edge, then
at least one of the 2 rules is applicable

Proof:
• Suppose there is a white edge e = (u,v).
• If u & v are connected by a blue path, say P, then Red-rule applies to cycle P+e.
• Otherwise, define: X = the set of nodes connected to u by blue paths.
Y = V(G) – X.
• Cut (X,Y) contains at least one white cross-edge (e) & no blue cross-edges. Why?
So, the Blue-rule can be applied to this cut.

79
 Short Bridge

B e

The Blue Spanning Subgraph consists of edges colored blue so far.

This subgraph is a forest (a node-disjoint collection of trees), and
each connected component of it (a tree) is called a blue component.

A white edge e is the short bridge of a blue component B if:

• e is incident to blue component B, and
• among all (white) edges incident to B, e has minimum weight.

Short Bridge Rule: A short bridge of any blue component

can be colored blue. 80
 MST Construction: Two Classic Algorithms
Kruskal [1956] based on Borůvka [1926]:

 e = min weight white edge.

 If both ends of e are in the same blue component
then color e red (by the Red-Rule),
else color e blue (e is a short bridge).

Prim [1957] based on Jarník [1930]:

 s = an initially selected starting vertex.
 e = the short bridge incident to the blue component that contains s.
 Color e blue.

s e

81
 Kruskal’s MST Algorithm
 e = min weight white edge.
 If both ends of e are in the same blue component
then color e red (by the Red-Rule),
else color e blue (e is a short bridge).

Disjoint Set Union Data Structure:

Maintains the partitioning of V(G) into vertex sets of blue components under
the following operations:
 MakeSet(v) Create a singleton blue component set {v}.
 FindSet(v) Return the name of the blue component that contains node v.
 Union(A,B) Replace the two component sets A and B by AB.
 This data structure is studied in EECS 4101 and [CLRS 21].
 O(E) such operations on V elements take O( E a(E,V) ) time in total.
 a is inverse of Ackermann’s function and is very very slow growing.
On practical instances a < 5 (but it eventually increases to ).

82
Algorithm KruskalMST( G )
1. for each vertex v  V(G) do MakeSet(v) §
initialize blue forest
2. SORT edges E(G) in non-decreasing order of weight § all edges white
3. T  
§ MST blue edges

4. for each edge (u,v)  E(G), in sorted order do § min weight

white edge
5. A  FindSet(u) § find blue components
that contain u & v
B  FindSet(v)
6. if A  B then do § if A = B, then color (u,v)
red
7. T  T  {(u,v)} § color (u,v) blue; it is
short bridge of A (& B)
8. Union(A,B) § unite
Stepcomponents
2 Sort: O(EAlog
&BE) = O(E log V2) = O(E log V) time.
9. end-if
Disjoint Set Union operations: V MakeSets, 2E FindSets, V–1 Unions: O(Ea(E,V)) time.
10. end-for
Total Time = O(E log V). 83
 Example
2 ab
2 ef
3 bc 2 3
3 be a b c
3 fi
Edges sorted by weight

4 bd 4 8
5 3 6
4 dh
5 ad
5 ei d e f
6 cf 6 2
6 de
7
7 eh 8 3
4 5
8 ce
8 dg
8 hi g h i
9 8
9 gh

84
 Prim’s MST Algorithm
 B = blue component that contains the selected starting node s.
 e = the short bridge of B.
 Color e blue.

s bridge(u,B) u
key = - p(u)

B Q

Each blue component other that B is a singleton node in Q = V(G) – B.

Q = min priority queue of nodes.
For each u  Q define:
bridge(u,B) = min weight white edge incident to both u and B
p(u) = the end node of bridge(u,B) in B (nil if no such edge)
key[u] = priority of u = w( bridge(u,B) ) = w(p(u), u) (+ if no such edge)
u* = argmin u { w(bridge(u,B)) | u  Q }
e = bridge(B) = (p(u*), u*) = the short bridge incident to B. 85
 One Prim Step

B Q
s bridge(B) u
key = - p(u)
v

u  DeleteMin(Q)
key[u]  - 

B Q
s u
key = - p(u)
v

Update key[v] , p[v] ; and UpHeap(v,Q) , for each v  Adj[u]Q

86
Algorithm PrimMST( G , sV(G))
1. for each vertex u  V(G) do key[u]  +
2. key[s]  0 ; p[s]  nil
§ first node to be selected
3. Q  ConstructMinHeap(V(G), key) § key[u]
= priority(u)
4. while Q   do
§ |V| iterations
5. u  DeleteMin(Q); key[u]  - § O(log
V) time § O( |Adj[u]| log V) time
6. for each v  Adj[u] do

7. if key[v] > w(u,v) then do

§ key[v]  -
8. key[v]  w(u,v)
9. p[v]  u

10. UpHeap(v,Q)
11. O(Eend-if
log V) with standard binary heap
12.Total time =end-for
O(E + V log V) with Fibonacci Heaps (EECS 4101 & [CLRS 20]).
13. end-while 87
 Example
2
key = - + key = - +
3
key = 0- 
p= a p= b
p = nil
2 3
s= a b c

4 8
5 3 6
key = 3
+ -
45
key = -+  p=b key = -+26

p = ba d e f p = ec
6 2

7
8 3
4 5

key = -+8

p= d g h i
9 8
key = -+35

key = -+47

p = fe
p= de
88
 MST Verification

FACT: Let T be a spanning tree of G = (V,E,w).

T is an MST of G if and only if
for every edge (u,v)  E – T,
w(u,v)  weight of every edge along the unique
simple path in T between u & v.

T:
LCA(u,v)

v
u

89
 Bibliography: MST
 Kruskal [1956] (Borůvka [1926]): O(E log V) time
 Prim[1957] (Jarník [1930]): O(E log V) , O(E + V log V) with Fib.Heap
 Cheriton-Tarjan [1976] AAW
O(E log log V) time on general graphs,
O(V) time on planar graphs with arbitrary edge weights
[studied in EECS 6114]

 Karger, Klein, Tarjan [1995] O(E) expected-time randomized MST algorithm

 Chazelle [2000]: O( E a(E,V) ) time deterministic MST algorithm
 Pettie-Ramachandran [2002]: Decision tree optimal MST algorithm

 Buchsbaum et al. [2006], King [1997]: O(E) time MST verification algorithm.
 Euclidean MST of n points in the plane:
O(n log n) time via Voronoi-Delaunay structures [studied in EECS 6114]

P.T.O.
90
 Bibliography: MST
 A.L. Buchsbaum, L. Georgiadis, H. Kaplan, A. Rogers, R.E. Tarjan, J.R. Westbrook,
“Linear-time pointer-machine algorithms for path evaluation problems on trees and graphs,”
arXiv:cs.DS/0207061v2, October 2006. [An earlier version in STOC’88, pp: 279-288.]
 B. Chazelle, “The Soft Heap: an approximate priority queue with optimal error rate,”
J. ACM, 47(6):1012-1027, 2000.
 B. Chazelle, “A minimum spanning tree algorithm with inverse Ackermann type complexity,”
J. ACM, 47(6):1028-1047, 2000.
 D. Cheriton, R.E. Tarjan “Finding minimum spanning trees,”
SIAM J. Computing (5):725-742, 1976.
 H. Kaplan, U. Zwick, “A simpler implementation and analysis of Chazelle’s Soft Heaps,”
SODA, pp:477-485, 2009.
 D.R. Karger, P.N. Klein, R.E. Tarjan, “A randomized linear-time algorithm to find minimum
spanning trees,” J. ACM (42):321-328, 1995.
 V. King, “A simpler linear time algorithm for minimum spanning tree verification,”
Algorithmica, 18: 263-270, 1997.
 S. Pettie, V. Ramachandran “An optimal minimum spanning tree algorithm,”
J. ACM 49(1):16-34, 2002.

91
SHORTEST PATHS
Well, ya turn left by the fire station in the village and take the old post road by
the reservoir and. . . no, that won’t do.
Best to continue straight on by the tar road until you reach the schoolhouse and
then turn left on the road to Bennett’s Lake until. . . no, that won’t work either.
East Millinocket, ya say? Come to think of it, you can’t get there from here.
Robert Bryan and Marshall Dodge,
Bert and I and Other Stories from Down East (1961)

Hey farmer! Where does this road go?

Been livin’ here all my life, it ain’t gone nowhere yet.
Hey farmer! How do you get to Little Rock?
Listen stranger, you can’t get there from here.
Hey farmer! You don’t know very much do you?
No, but I ain’t lost.
Michelle Shocked, “Arkansas Traveler" (1992)

92
 The Shortest Path Problem
 Given weighted digraph G = (V,E,w) with w: E   (possibly < 0).
|

 Cost or distance of a path P in G: d(P) = sum of weights of edges on P.

 A shortest (s,t) path: a path from vertex s to vertex t in G, whose cost is
minimum among all paths in G
from s to t.
 Shortest Path Problem: Find a shortest path from s to t in G for each member
(s,t) of a given collection of vertex
pairs.
 Four versions of the Shortest Path Problem:
Single-Pair: Find a shortest path from a given vertex s to a given vertex t in G.
Single-Source: Given a source vertex s, find a shortest path from s to v, vV(G).
Single-Sink: Given a sink vertex t, find a shortest path from v to t, vV(G).
° Single-Source and Single-Sink
All-Pairs: Forare directional
every duals ofseach
pair of vertices and t,other.
find a shortest path from s
to t in G.
° Single-Pair algorithms typically solve (at least partially) Single-Source or Single-Sink.
° All-Pairs can be solved by |V(G)| iterations of Single-Source.
° So, Single-Source is a fundamental problem on which we will concentrate.
° However, we will also discuss All-Pairs separately. 93
Single-Source
Shortest Paths

94
 Negative Cost Cycles
FACT 1: Suppose node t is reachable from node s.
 a shortest path from s to t if no path from s to t contains a negative cost cycle.
If there is any shortest path from s to t, there is one that is simple.

Proof:
If some s-t path contains a negative cycle, we can produce an arbitrarily short s-t path by
repeating the cycle enough times.
If no s-t path contains a negative cycle, we can make any s-t path simple, without increasing
its cost, by removing (or bypassing) the cycles on the path.

In the presence of negative cycles, asking for a simple shortest path is NP-Complete.

Optimum Sub-Structure Property (OSSP) of dynamic programming does NOT hold.

95
 Shortest Path Trees
Shortest Path Tree T: A compact way to represent single-source shortest paths.
This is a tree rooted at the source s and spans all nodes reachable from s,
all of whose paths are shortest paths in G.
T: g 6
G: g
3 2 3

-2 3 e f 9
e f
4
-1 5 -1 5
10 d
10 d
12
-6 7
b 4 c b 4 c 3
8
13 3
3 a
a
source 0

FACT 2: G contains shortest paths from source s to all reachable nodes

if and only if G contains a shortest path tree rooted at s.
Proof: Completed later, by giving an algorithm that finds either a shortest path tree or a
negative cycle reachable from s. 96
 Characterizing Shortest Path Trees
T = a subgraph of G that is a tree rooted at source s and spans all nodes reachable from s.
dist(v) = cost of the unique path in T from s to v.

FACT 3: T is a shortest path tree if and only if for every edge (u,v) of G,
dist(u) + w(u,v)  dist(v). [Verifiable in O(V+E) time.]

Proof: dist(u) + w(u,v) < dist(v)  the path in T from s to v is not shortest.
Conversely, suppose dist(u) + w(u,v)  dist(v) for every edge (u,v) in G.
Let P be any path from s to any node v. By induction on the # edges on P, we
can show d(P)  dist(v). Hence, T is a shortest path tree.

dist(v) v

s w(u,v)

dist(u) u
97
 Characterizing Shortest Path Trees
T = a subgraph of G that is a tree rooted at source s and spans all nodes reachable from s.
dist(v) = cost of the unique path in T from s to v.

FACT 3: T is a shortest path tree if and only if for every edge (u,v) of G,
dist(u) + w(u,v)  dist(v). [Verifiable in O(V+E) time.]

g T: g 6
G:
3 2 3

e
-2 f
3 e f 9
4
-1 5 -1 5
10 d 12 10 d

-6 7
b 4 c b 4 c 3
8 13 3
3
a a
source
0

98
 The Recurrence [Bellman 1958]
T = shortest path tree rooted at s.
dist(v) = cost of the unique path in T from s to v.
p(v) = parent of v in T (nil if no parent).
R(s) = the set of nodes in G that are reachable from s.

FACT 4: G has a shortest path tree rooted at s

if and only if
the following recurrence has a solution:
1. p(s) = nil
dist(s) = 0
2. vR(s) –{s}:
p(v) = argmin u { dist(u) + w(u,v) | (u,v)  E(G)}
dist(v) = min { dist(u) + w(u,v) | (u,v)  E(G)} = dist(p(v)) + w(p(v) ,v)
3. vV(G) – R(s):
p(v) = nil
dist(v) = +  .
99
 Labeling Method [Ford 1956]
Tentative shortest path tree dist and p. Initialization and iterative improvement:

Initialize:
dist(s) = 0
dist(v) = +  v V(G) – {s}
p(v) = nil v V(G)

Labeling Step:
Select an edge (u,v)  E(G) such that dist(u) + w(u,v) < dist(v).
Label v: dist(v)  dist(u) + w(u,v) ;
p(v)  u.
dist(v) v

s w(u,v)

dist(u) u
[CLRS] calls this a Relaxation Step. 100
 Labeling Method Invariants
FACT 5:
Ford’s labeling method maintains the following invariants for any vV(G):
(1) If dist(v) is finite, then there is an s-v path of cost dist(v).
(2) If p(v)  nil, then dist(p(v)) + w(p(v) ,v)  dist(v) remains true,
and is met with equality when the method terminates.
(3) If P is any s-v path, then d(P)  dist(v) when Ford’s method terminates.

Proof sketch: dist(v) v

(1) By induction on # labeling steps.
(2) By induction on # labeling steps. s w(u,v)
(3) By induction on # edges on P.
dist(u) u

FACT 6:
(1) When the labeling method terminates,
dist(v) = cost of a shortest s-v path, if v is reachable from s, and
dist(v) =  otherwise.
(2) If there is a negative cycle reachable from s, the method never terminates. 101
 Tentative Shortest Path Tree Invariants
Define: p0(v) = v, pk+1 (v) = p(pk(v)) for any vertex v and any integer k  0.
That is, p0(v), p1(v), p2(v), … are v, parent of v, grand parent of v, …

FACT 7:
(1) Ford’s labeling method maintains the invariant that
either the edges (p(v) ,v) , for v such that p(v)  nil,
form a tree rooted at s, spanning vertices v such that dist(v) < ,
or there is a vertex v such that pk(v) = v for some k > 0.
(2) If at some time during the labeling method
pk(v) = v for some vertex v and integer k > 0,
then the corresponding cycle in G has negative cost.

Proof sketch:
(1) By ind. on # labeling steps. dist(u) – dist(v) + w(u,v) < 0
dist(u)
(2) Consider a labeling step dist(v)
that creates such a cycle
s v u
of parent pointers:
w(u,v) 102
 Termination?
FACT 8:
If and when Ford’s labeling method terminates, the parent pointers define
a shortest path tree from the source s to all vertices reachable from s.

 If there is a negative cycle reachable from s, the method never terminates.

 Even if it does terminate, it may require exponentially many labeling steps
(an upper bound of 2|E| – 1 steps can be shown).
 Instead of verifying that the general labeling method terminates,
we shall study efficient refinements of it.

103
 Labeling & Scanning Method
 This first refinement eliminates unnecessary edge examinations.
 Maintains a partition of vertices into 3 states: unlabeled, labeled, scanned.
 The labeled or scanned vertices are exactly those with finite dist values.
 The possible state transitions are:

UNLABELE LABELE SCANNE

D D D
 Initialization: s is labeled and every other vertex is unlabeled.
 Scanning Step: Select a labeled vertex u and scan it, thereby converting it to
the scanned state, by applying the labeling step to every edge (u,v) such that
dist(u) + w(u,v) < dist(v), thereby converting v to the labeled state.

dist(u) w(u,v) dist(v)

s u v
104
 Example
 -2   3 -2 1
3
c d c d c d

3 -1 4 3 3
1 1 1
a b a b a b
 1 1
0 0 0
(1) Scan a (2) Scan c
(0) Initial

3 1 0 1 0 0
-2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2
c d c d c d c d
3 -1 -1 -1
1 1 1 1
a b a b b b
a a
1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0
(3) Scan d (4) Scan b (5) Scan c (6) Scan d

No labeled vertex remains. Scanning & Labeling Method terminates. 105

 Efficient Scanning Orders
Three cases considered:
1. [DAG]: G is a Directed Acyclic Graph,
2. [w  0]: G may have cycles but all edge weights are non-negative,
3. [General]: G may have cycles and edge weights may be negative.

We will consider these 3 cases one by one. ……………………………….. P.T.O.

106
 1. G is a DAG [Topological]

a b d h g c f e

 Topological order is an appropriate scanning order.

 Order the vertices that are reachable from s in G so that if uv is an edge of G,
u appears before v in the order.
 As we have learned, we can topologically order vertices of DAG G in O(V+E)
time by doing a DFS of G and ordering the nodes in reverse-postorder.
 Then apply the scanning step once to each vertex in topological order.
 Since the scanning order is topological, once a vertex is scanned,
it never returns to the labeled state.
 So, one scan per vertex reachable from s suffices.
 The running time of the algorithm is  
O   1 | Adj[ u ] |   O ( V  E ).
 u V ( G ) 
107
 Example
 -2  -1 4
c d source = a. c d

3 -1 4 Topological Order: b, a, c, d. -1 4
1
b a b is not reachable from a. b a
 0  0
(0) Initial (1) Scan a

-1 -2 -3 -1 -2 -3
c d c d

-1 -1

b a b a
 0  0
(2) Scan c (3) Scan d

No labeled vertex remains. Scanning & Labeling Method terminates. 108

 2. w  0 [Dijkstra]
 One scan per vertex also suffices if G is arbitrary (with possible cycles) but has
no negative weight edges.
 Dijkstra [1959] proposed the appropriate GREEDY scanning order:
Shortest First: Among labeled vertices, always scan one whose tentative
distance is minimum.

FACT 9:
Suppose every edge in G has non-negative weight.
Scanning shortest first maintains the invariant: dist(u)  dist(v)
for every scanned vertex u and every non-scanned (labeled/unlabeled) vertex v.

Proof sketch: By induction on the # scanning steps,

using non-negativity of edge weights.

dist(u) w(u,v) dist(v)

s u v
109
 2. w  0 [Dijkstra]
FACT 10:
Suppose every edge in G has non-negative weight.
Scanning shortest first maintains the invariant that:
once a vertex u is scanned, dist(u) is the cost of a shortest path from s to u.

Proof:

By Fact 9: dist(u)  dist(v)

for every scanned vertex u and every non-scanned vertex v.

This means that vertices are scanned in non-decreasing order by shortest distance
from s, and that a vertex, once scanned, due to non-negativity of edge weights,
cannot become labeled.
dist(u) u

s w(v,u)
dist(v) v
110
 Example
0) Initial:  1) Scan a: 
g g
 3 2   3 2 
1 1
e f e f
 4
10 0 5 10 0 5
d 12 d 12
8 7 8 7
b 4 c b 4 c
 6 3   6 3 3
a a
0 0

 
3) Scan d: g 2) Scan c: g
4 3 2 9  3 2 15
1 1
e f e f
4 4
10 0 5 10 0 5
d 12 d 12
8 7 8 7
b 4 c b 4 c
 6 3 3  6 3 3
a a
0 0 111
 Example
7 7
4) Scan e: g 5) Scan g: g
4 3 2 9 4 3 2 9
1 1
e f e f
4 4
10 0 5 10 0 5
d 12 d 12
8 7 8 7
b 4 c b 4 c
14 6 3 3 14 6 3 3
a a
0 0

 7
3) Scan d: g 6) Scan f: g
4 3 2 9 4 3 2 9
1 1
e f e f
4 4
10 0 5 10 0 5
d 12 d 12
8 7 8 7
b 4 c b 4 c
 6 3 3 14 6 3 3
a a
0 0 112
 Example
7 7
4) Scan e: g 5) Scan g: g
4 3 2 9 4 3 2 9
1 1
e f e f
4 4
10 0 5 10 0 5
d 12 d 12
8 7 8 7
b 4 c b 4 c
14 6 3 3 14 6 3 3
a a
0 0

7 7
7) Scan b: g 6) Scan f: g
4 3 2 9 4 3 2 9
1 1
e f e f
4 4
10 0 5 10 0 5
d 12 d 12
DONE
8 7 8 7
b 4 c b 4 c
14 6 3 3 14 6 3 3
a a
0 0 113
Algorithm Dijkstra ( G , sV(G) )
1. for each vertex u  V(G) do dist[u]  +
2. dist[s]  0 ; p[s]  nil
§ first node to be scanned
3. Q  ConstructMinHeap(V(G), dist) § dist[u]
= priority(u)
4. while Q   do
§ |V| iterations
5. u  DeleteMin(Q)
§ O(log V) time § O( |Adj[u]| log V) time
6. for each v  Adj[u] do

7. if dist[v] > dist[u] + w(u,v) then do

8. dist[v]  dist[u] + w(u,v)
9. p[v]  u

10. UpHeap(v,Q) Procedure PrintSP(u)

11. O(E logend-if
V) with standard binary heap if u = nil then return
12.
Total time = end-for PrintSP(p[u])
13. end-while O(E + V log V) with Fibonacci Heap print u
end §114
end
O(V) time
 3. General [Bellman-Ford]
 In this 3rd and last case, G is a general digraph (possibly with cycles) and some
edge weights may be negative.
 Bellman [1958] proposed the appropriate GREEDY scanning order:
Breadth First: Among labeled vertices, scan the one least recently labeled.

 A looser interpretation of the rule is as effective:

We divide the labeling steps into stages. In each stage we check every edge in
some arbitrary order by applying the labeling step on them if applicable.
 By induction on the # edges on an s-v path P, say k edges, we can show that by
the end of stage k, dist(v)  d(P).
 Any simple path has at most |V(G)| – 1 edges.
So, if there is a shortest path tree, it will be found by the end of stage |V(G)| –1.

If in stage |V(G)| a labeling step is still applicable,

we conclude there must be a negative cycle reachable from s.

115
Algorithm BellmanFord ( G , sV(G) ) § O(VE) time
1. for each vertex u  V(G) do dist[u]  +
2. dist[s]  0 ; p[s]  nil

3. for stage  1 .. |V(G)| –1 do

4. for each edge (u,v)  E(G), in arbitrary order do
5. if dist[v] > dist[u] + w(u,v) then do
6. dist[v]  dist[u] + w(u,v)
7. p[v]  u
8. end-if
9. end-for
10. end-for

11. for each edge (u,v)  E(G), in arbitrary order do § stage |V(G)|
12. if dist[v] > dist[u] + w(u,v) then
13. return there is a negative cycle reachable
from s
end
Exercise: If line 13 detects existence of a negative cycle,
find one such cycle in O(V) time.
116
 All-Pairs
Shortest Paths

117
 All-Pairs by Single-Source
 All-Pairs Shortest Paths: |V| iterations of Single-Source Shortest Paths.
 If all edge weights are non-negative, |V| Dijkstra iterations.
Time = O(VE log V) improved to O(VE + V2 log V) by Fibonacci
Heap.
 If some edge weights may be negative, |V| Bellman-Ford iterations.
Time = O(V2E).
 Edmonds-Karp [1972] & Johnson [1977] found an improved method:
Preprocessing transformation:
make all edge weights non-negative but preserve shortest paths.

[How? For details, see the next slide.]

 Preprocessing: Bellman-Ford in O(VE) time.

Afterwards, apply |V| iterations of Dijkstra.
Total time of O(VE + V2 log V).

118
 Edmonds-Karp & Johnson Transformation
1. Start with the given weighted digraph G = (V, E, w).
2. Add to G a new vertex sV and a 0 weight edge from s to each vertex vV.
3. Apply Bellman-Ford to the augmented graph with source s:
either find shortest path distances, denoted r(v), from s to each vV,
or discover a negative cycle in G. In the latter case abort.

0 0 r(d)= -4
r(c) = -2
-2 -2 -2
c d c d
c d 0 0
-1 4 3 -1 4 3 -1 4
3 s s
-1 -1 0 -1
0 a b a b
a b
3 3 3
r(a) = 0
0 r(b)= -1
0
G
Single-source
Augmented G shortest dist in
Augmented G 119
 Edmonds-Karp & Johnson Transformation
 Transform edge weights: ŵ(u,v) = w(u,v) + r(u) – r(v) for all (u,v)  E(G).

r(c) = -2 r(d) = -4 0
-2 c d
c d
5 0 1
G: 3 -1 4
0
-1 a b
a b 2
3 Edge-weight transformed G
r(a) = 0 r(b) = -1

 Property 1: (u,v)  E(G) we have:

ŵ ( since )
 Property 2: For any path P from any vertex u to any vertex v in G:

where is the cost of path P according to the modified edge weights .

 This means shortest paths are preserved under the modified edge weights,
since cost of every path from u to v is shifted by the same amount
120
 Floyd-Warshall [1962]
 Floyd modified transitive closure algorithm of Warshall to obtain a simplified
O(V3)-time algorithm for all-pairs shortest paths based on dynamic programming.
 Let V(G) = {1,2, … , n}. For every pair of nodes u, v define:

d(k)(u,v) = Minimum cost among all those paths from node u to node v
whose intermediate nodes (excluding u and v) are in {1..k}.
That is, the maximum numbered intermediate node is at most k.
p(k)(u,v) = predecessor of node v on such a path.

 FACT: d(n)(u,v) = Shortest path cost from u to v.

d(0)(u,v) = A[u,v] , where A is the weighted adjacency matrix
(assume no self-loops exist).

 DP: How to go from d(k-1) to d(k), for k = 1,2, …, n?

121
 Floyd-Warshall [1962]
 DP: How to go from d(k-1) to d(k), for k = 1,2, …, n?
 If d(k-1)(k,k) < 0, then there is a negative cycle & k is the max node of it. Abort.
 Otherwise: for all u, v we have:
k ) k d (k-1)
(k-
1) (u , ( k ,v
d )
OSSP holds:
u v
d(k-1)(u,v)

d(k)(u,v) = min { d(k-1)(u,v), d(k-1)(u,k) + d(k-1)(k,v) }

p(k)(u,v) = p(k-1)(u,v) OR p(k-1)(k,v)

kv

122
 Floyd-Warshall [1962]

d(k)(u,v) = min{ d(k-1)(u,v), d(k-1)(u,k) + d(k-1)(k,v)} k

d(k-1)(k,k)  0 d(k-1)(k,k)

k
d(k)(u,k) = min{ d(k-1)(u,k), d(k-1)(u,k) + d(k-1)(k,k)}
= d(k-1)(u,k)

d(k)(k,v) = min{ d(k-1)(k,v), d(k-1)(k,k) + d(k-1)(k,v)}

= d(k-1)(k,v)

 This means row k and column k do not change in iteration k-1  k.

 Since all other entries are updated based on their “old” values & row k and column k,
we can re-use the same matrices d and p.
 That is, drop the super-script from these matrices.

123
Algorithm FloydWarshall (G) § O(V3) time, O(V2)
space

1. for each (u,v)  V(G)  V(G) do §k=0

(or nil)
2. d[u,v]  A[u,v]
§ weighted adj. matrix
3. p[u,v]  nil
4. for each (u,v)  E(G) do p[u,v]  u

5. for each k  V(G) do

§ O(V) iterations
6. if d[k,k] < 0 then return there is a negative cycle
7. for each (u,v)  V(G)  V(G) do § O(V2)
iterations
8. if d[u,v] > d[u,k] + d[k,v] then do
9. d[u,v]  d[u,k] + d[k,v]
10. p[u,v]  p[k,v]
§kv
11. end-if
124
12. end-for
 The Dynamic Programming Algorithm
 Floyd-Warshall’s algorithm is a special case of Gauss-Jordan elimination.

 Gauss-Jordan elimination has many other applications, including

 Solving systems of linear equations
 Converting a finite automaton into a regular expression
 Doing global analysis of computer programs

 Tarjan [1981] showed all these problems can be

treated together in an appropriate unified setting.

125
 Bibliography: Shortest Paths
 R.E. Bellman “On a routing problem,” Quart. Appl. Math. 16: 87-90, 1958.
 E.W. Dijkstra, “A note on two problems in connexion with graphs,” Numer. Math.1:269-271, 1959.
 Jack Edmonds, R.M. Karp, “Theoretical improvements in algorithmic efficiency for network flow
problems,” J. ACM 19:248-264, 1972.
 R.W. Floyd, “Algorithm 97: Shortest path,” CACM 5:345, 1962.
 L.R. Ford, Jr., “Network flow theory,” Paper P-923, RAND Corp., Santa Monica, CA., 1956.
 L.R. Ford, Jr., D.R. Fulkerson, “Flows in Networks,” Princeton University Press, 1962.
 D.B. Johnson, “Efficient algorithms for shortest paths in sparse networks,” JACM 24(1):1-13, 1977.
 P. Klein, S. Rao, M. Rauch, S. Subramanian, “Faster shortest-path algorithms for planar graphs,”
26th STOC, pp: 27-37, 1994.
 R.E. Tarjan, “A unified approach to path problems,” JACM 28: 577-593, 1981.
 M. Thorup, “Undirected single-source shortest paths with positive integer weights in linear time,”
J. ACM 46(3):362-394, 1999.
 S. Warshall, “A theorem on Boolean matrices,” JACM 9: 11-12, 1962.

126
MAX FLOW

127
 Flow Network
Weighted digraph G = (V, E, c, s, t): s = source node (in-degree = 0)
t = sink node (out-degree = 0)
edge capacity: c(e) > 0 eE
flow
a 2 a 3
2 3 / /3 capacity
1

2/4
s t s t
4
5/
5 3
5 /3
b b 3
Max flow value = 1 + 5 = 3 + 3 = 6

Flow Decomposition into s-t path flows:

a a a
1 1 2
s t + s 2 t + s t
2 3 3
b b b
128
 The max Flow Problem
Notation: E+(v) = the set of edges out of vertex vV
E-(v) = the set of edges into vertex vV. v
E (v)
- E+(v)

Flow Feasibility Constraints:

Capacity Constraints: 0  f (e)  c(e) e  E

Flow Conservation:  f ( e)   f ( e) v  V  {s, t}

eE  ( v ) eE  ( v )

Maximize Flow value: v(f )   f (e)   f (e)

e E  ( s ) e E  ( t )

129
 Multi-Source Multi-Sink

Transform to single-source single-sink:

G t1
s1

 a t2

s  s2  t
b
t3 super
super
  sink
source c d
s3 t4

130
 Applications

 Electrical circuits
 Hydraulic systems
 Traffic movements
 Telecommunication networks
 Freight transportation
 Min-cost flow
 Graph Matching
 Matrix rounding
 …

131
A Heuristic: flow composition by s-t path flows
a a a
0/4 0/5 0/4 3/5 2/4 5/5
s 0/3 t s 3/3 t s 3/3 t
0/7 0/7 3/7 0/7 3/7 0/7
b b b
a a a
3 2 2
s t s t + s t
3 +
3 4 4
b b b

a a
2/4 5/5 4/4 5/5
?
s 3/3 t s 1/3 t
7/7 4/7 7/7 6/7
b b
Flow value = 9 Max Flow value = 11132
A Heuristic: flow composition by s-t path flows
a a a
0/4 0/5 0/4 3/5 2/4 5/5
s 0/3 t s 3/3 t s 3/3 t
0/7 0/7 3/7 0/7 3/7 0/7
b b b
a a a
3 2 2
s t s t + s t
3 +
3 4 4
b b b

a
+ a
2/4 5/5 a 4/4 5/5
2 ?
s 3/3 t s 1/3 t
s -2 t
7/7 4/7 7/7 6/7
b b 2 b
Flow value = 9 augmenting path Max Flow value = 11133
 Augmenting Path
 f = a feasible flow in G
 p is an augmenting path with respect to flow f in G if:
 p is an s-t path in G if we ignore edge directions,
 every forward edge e on p is un-saturated, i.e., f(e) < c(e),
 every backward edge e on p carries positive flow, i.e., f(e) > 0.

augmenting path p
s t

Residual capacity of “edge” (u,v) on p:

ĉ(u,v) = c(u,v) – f(u,v) if (u,v) is a forward edge on p

ĉ(u,v) = f(v,u) if (v,u) is a backward edge on p

134
 The Residual Graph G(f)
To help find augmenting paths, we define The Residual Graph G(f):
G(f):
u v
G, f: ĉ(u,v) = c(u,v) – f(u,v)
if > 0
u v
0  f(u,v)  c(u,v) u v
ĉ(v,u) = f(u,v)
if > 0

a
4 6
a
4/4 6/6
s 1 2 t
s 2/3 t
4
2
5/7 3/7 5 3
b b
135
 An Augmenting Step
 There is an augmenting path in G wrt f  there is a directed s-t path in G(f).
 p = an augmenting path with respect to f in G.
 bottleneck capacity of p:

 Augment flow f along p:

136
Algorithm FordFulkerson( G=(V,E,c,s,t) )
1. for each e  E do f(e)  0 § an initial
feasible flow
2. optimal  false
3. while not optimal do § each
iteration in O(E) time
4. Construct residual graph G(f)
5. if  an s-t path p in G(f)
§ do a graph search in G(f)
6. then augment f along p
7. else optimal  true § proof
is coming
8. end-while
Ford-Fulkerson [1956-1962]
9. return f
end
Fundamental Questions:
 Termination
 Correctness: optimality upon termination
 Efficiency: # of augmenting iterations.
137
 Example
0/4 4/4
a c a c
0/12 5/12
0 / 15 4 / 15
0/5 1/5
s 0/15 0/8 t s 1/15 1/8 t

0/8 0/7 8/8 7/7

0 / 18 d 7 / 18 d
b b
4/4 4/4
a c a c
4/12 9/12
4 / 15 8 / 15
0/5 5/5
s 0/15 0/8 t s 1/15 5/8 t

0/8 0/7 8/8 7/7

0 / 18 d 7 / 18 d
b b
4/4 4/4
a c a c
4/12 10/12
4 / 15 9 / 15
0/5 5/5
s 0/15 0/8 t s 0/15 6/8 t

7/8 7/7 8/8 7/7

7 / 18 d 8 / 18 d
b b 138
 Example

a 4/4 c
10/12
G, f: 9 / 15
5/5
s 0/15 6/8 t

8/8 7/7
8 / 18 d
b

4
G(f): a c
9 10
2

6 5 6
s 15 2 t
nodes
reachable 8 10 7
from s b d
8 139
 st-CUT
An st-cut is a partitioning of the vertex set V into a subset
X and its complement such that and .

Cut Capacity: sum of capacities of forward cross edges of the cut.

forward cross edges

X X
t
s

backward cross edges

140
 Flow across a cut
FACT: For any feasible flow f and any st-cut , the flow value v(f) satisfies:
v( f ) = (total forward cross flow) – (total backward cross flow)

Proof: By induction on |X| using the flow conservation law.

forward cross edges

X X
t
s

backward cross edges

141
 Example
4/4
a c
5/12
4 / 15
1/5
s 1/15 1/8 t v(f) = 12 = (4 + 1 + 8) – (1)
8/8 7/7
7 / 18 d C ( X 1 , X1 )  17 = 8 + 5 + 4
b

4/4
a c
5/12
4 / 15
1/5 v(f) = 12 = (8 + 1 + 5) – (1 + 1)
s 1/15 1/8 t

7/7 C ( X 2 , X 2 )  25 = 8 + 5 + 12
8/8 7 / 18
b d
142
 Max-Flow Min-Cut Theorem

Theorem [Ford-Fulkerson 1962]:

Let f be any feasible flow, and be any st-cut. Then
(a)
(b) f is a max flow and is a min capacity st-cut if and only if

Proof:
(a) v(f) = (total forward flow) – (total backward flow) s t
 (total forward capacity) – 0
= .
(b) At the last iteration of Ford-Fulkerson’s algorithm, let X X
X the set of nodes reachable from s in G(f).
is an st-cut with the following properties:
all its forward cross edges are saturated (f = c) and
all its backward cross edges are empty (f = 0).
2nd line of proof of (a) is now met with =.
143
 Max Flow Min Cut
Optimality: For any feasible flow f & any st-cut
f is a max-flow & is a min-cut
if and only if
all forward cross edges of the cut are saturated (f = c), &
all backward cross edges of the cut are empty (f=0).

f=c X
X

t
s

f=0
144
 Example

8/9
a c
3 4 2/
/1 /4 2
12
0/3

1/1
s t

0/3
/ 5
5 0
8/

2
8/
8

1
b d
13 / 15
Max-Flow & Min-Cut:
Forward cross edges are saturated.
Backward cross edges are empty.
Max flow value
flow value = 12 + 8 = 20

= Min st-cut capacity = 8 + 4 + 5 + 1 + 2 = 20.

145
Integrality Theorem:
If all edge capacities are integers, then there is always an all integer max flow,
and the max flow obtained by Ford-Fulkerson’s algorithm has this property.

Proof:
By induction on the # augmenting iterations: f remains an all integer flow.
Basis: Initial flow value is all zero integers.
Induction: Residual capacities ĉ remain all integers
(they are either flow value or edge capacity minus flow
value).
Therefore, the augmenting values D > 0 is also an integer.

146
 Termination
Corollary [to the Integrality Theorem]:
If all edge capacities are integers, then Ford-Fulkerson’s algorithm terminates
after at most v* iterations, where v* is the max flow value.
In this case, the running time of the algorithm is O(v* E).

Proof: Upper-bound: D  1 per iteration (by the Integrality Theorem).

Worst-case tight: Alternate between augmenting paths:

WLOGA v* is even (e.g., 10100 ): sabt & sbat.
D = 1 per iteration.
a v*/2 v* iterations.
v*/2
s 1 t However,
v*/2 v*/2
2 iterations would suffice if we chose
b sat & sbt.

Remark:
If some edge capacities are irrationals, Ford-Fulkerson’s algorithm may never
terminate. It may even converge to a strictly sub-optimal flow! 147
 Edmonds-Karp Improvement

Edmonds-Karp [1972]:
Use BFS to pick the shortest augmenting path,
i.e., the s-t path in G(f) with fewest # of edges on it.

Notation:

df (v) = shortest distance from s to v in G(f), for vV.

148
 Edmonds-Karp Improvement
FACT 1: df (v) is non-decreasing in each iteration, for all v  V.
Proof: Consider an arbitrary augmenting iteration f  f’.
Need to show that df’ (v)  df (v), vV. We use induction on d = df’ (v).
Basis (d = 0): df’ (s) = 0. Source s is the only possible node.
Induction (d > 0): Suppose df’ (v) = d. Let u = p(v) on the shortest s-v path in G(f’).

Case 1) (u,v)  E(G(f)) :  E(G(f’)) and df’ (u) = d – 1 < d.

So, (u,v)
df’ (v) = df’(u) + 1 [s~uv is shortest s-v path in G(f’)]
 df (u) + 1 [by the induction hypothesis]
 df (v):
Case 2) (u,v)  E(G(f)) [by the triangle inequality in G(f)] .
Flow along (v,u) must have increased in this iteration.
So, (v,u) is the last edge on the shortest s-u path in G(f).
df’(v) = df’(u) + 1 [s~uv is shortest s-u path in G(f’)]
 df (u) + 1 [by the induction hypothesis] 149
 Edmonds-Karp Improvement
FACT 2: An edge (u,v) can be an augmenting bottleneck edge
at most |V|/2 –1 times.

Proof: Suppose (u,v) is the augmenting bottleneck edge in G(f) in some iteration i.
So, df (v) = df(u) + 1.
(u,v) is “filled up” and removed from the residual graph.
How can (u,v) become the bottleneck of another augmentation again?

Suppose (u,v) is the augmenting bottleneck edge again in some later iteration j > i.
This can only happen if for some intermediate iteration k, i < k < j.
(v,u) appears on an augmenting path, say in G(f’).
So, df’(u) = df’(v) + 1.

Therefore, df’(u) = df’(v) + 1  df (v) + 1 = df (u) + 2.

So, each time (u,v) is a bottleneck edge again, d(u) increases by at least 2.
But d(u)  |V| – 2, since u  V – {s,t}. 150
 Edmonds-Karp Improvement
Theorem: Edmonds-Karp Max-Flow algorithm takes O(VE2) time.

Proof: Each augmentation has a bottleneck edge.

An edge can become bottleneck of an augmentation O(V) times.
So, there are O(VE) augmentations.
Each augmenting iteration takes O(E) time.
Total time is as claimed.

151
Algorithm MaxFlowMinCut ( G=(V,E,c,s,t) ) § Ford-
Fulkerson
1. for each e  E do f(e)  0 § +
2. optimal  false §
Edmonds-Karp
3. while not optimal do
4. Construct residual graph G(f)
5. Do a BFS on G(f) from source s :
X  nodes reachable from s in G(f)
6. if t  X
7. then p  BFS tree path from s to t in G(f)
8. augment flow along p
9. else optimal  true
10. end-while
11. return ( max-flow f , min-cut ( ) ) § O(VE2)
time
end

152
 Example
0/4 4/4
a c a c
0/12 9/12
0 / 15 9 / 15
0/5 5/5
s 0/15 0/8 t s 0/15 5/8 t

0/8 0/7 7/8 7/7

0 / 18 d 7 / 18 d
b b
4/4
a c
4/12
4 / 15 4/4
a c
0/5 10/12
s 0/15 0/8 t 9 / 15
5/5
s 0/15 6/8 t
0/8 0/7
0 / 18 d
b
8/8 7/7
4/4 8 / 18 d
a c b
4/12
4 / 15
0/5
s 0/15 0/8 t
Max-Flow & Min-Cut:
7/8 7/7 Forward cross edges are saturated.
7 / 18 d
b Backward cross edges are empty. 153
 Bibliography: Max Flow
 Ahuja, Magnanti, Orlin[1993] is a comprehensive book in this area.
 Edmonds-Karp [1972]: gave the first polynomial time max-flow algorithm based
on Ford-Fulkerson’s algorithm with BFS augmentation: O(VE2) time.
 Dinits [1970]: independently suggested BFS augmentation. In addition, he
proposed a faster algorithm by augmenting along many paths simultaneously,
known as “blocking flows”: O(EV2) time.
 Karzanov [1974]: gave the fastest known max-flow algorithm on dense graphs
based on the notion of preflows: O(V3) time.
 Melhotra, Kumar, Maheshvari [1978]: gave a simplified algorithm with the same
time complexity: O(V3) time.
 Sleator, Tarjan [1983]: gave the fastest known max-flow algorithm on sparse
graphs by devising an efficient link-&-cut tree data structure: O(E V log V) time.
 Borradaile, Klein [2009]: give a faster max-flow algorithm on planar graphs.

P.T.O. 154
 Bibliography: Max Flow
 R.K. Ahuja, T.L. Magnanti, J.B. Orlin, “Network Flows: Theory, Algorithms, and Applications,”
Prentice Hall, 1993.

 G. Borradaile, P. Klein, “An O(n log n) algorithm for maximum st-flow in a directed planar graph,”
JACM 56(2), 9:1-9:30, 2009.

 E.A. Dinits, “Algorithm for solution of a problem of maximum flow in a network with power
estimation,” Soviet Mathematics Doklady, 11(5):1277-1280, 1970.
 Jack Edmonds, R.M. Karp, “Theoretical improvements in algorithmic efficiency for network flow
problems,” J. ACM 19:248-264, 1972.
 L.R. Ford, Jr., D.R. Fulkerson, “Flows in Networks,” Princeton University Press, 1962.

 A.V. Karzanov, “Determining the maximal flow in a network by the method of preflows,” Soviet
Mathematics Doklady, 15:434-437, 1974.

 V.M. Melhotra, M.P. Kumar, S.N. Maheshvari, “An O(|V|3) algorithm for finding maximum flows in
networks,” Information Processing Letters, 7(6):277-278, 1978.
 C. Papadimitriou, K. Steiglitz, “Combinatorial Optimization: Algorithms and Complexity,”
1st edition Prentice Hall, 1982; 2nd edition, Courier Dover, 1998.

 D.D. Sleator, R.E. Tarjan, “A Data Structure for Dynamic Trees,” Journal of Computer and System
Sciences, 26(3):362-391, 1983.
155
GRAPH MATCHING

156
 Graph Matching
M  E(G) is a matching in undirected graph G
if no two edges in M share a common vertex.

G: a non-bipartite graph:

M2
M1
a perfect matching
G: a bipartite graph:

157
 Graph Matching Problems
bipartite graphs max cardinality matching
general (non-bipartite) graphs weighted matching

 All 4 problems can be solved in polynomial time.

 The most general of them is weighted matching on general graphs.
It can be solved in O(V3) time. (See references.)

 We will show Max Cardinality matching algorithms:

 Bipartite Matching: an O(VE)-time algorithm
by a transformation to the Max Flow Problem,

 Non-Bipartite Matching: sketch an O(V2E)-time algorithm.

158
 Some Applications
Bipartite Matching:
 assign jobs to workers:
maximize employment (unweighted) or profit (weighted).
 2 processor scheduling with job conflict constraints:
minimize completion time.
Non-Bipartite Matching:
 2 processor scheduling with job precedence constraints:
minimize completion time.
 Traveling Salesman Problem.
 The Chinese Postman Problem
(MST + Shortest Paths + Min Weight Perfect Matching).
 Covering and Packing Problems.
 Assign 2n students to n 2-bed dorm-rooms
with student acquaintance-pair constraints.
159
 Max Cardinality Bipartite Matching
s

a b c d a b c d

1 2 3 1 2 3

By Flow Integrality Theorem:

max |M| = max v(f). t

On this special flow network all edge capacities = 1

Ford-Fulkerson’s algorithm
takes O(VE) time.
160
 Augmenting Paths
Suppose M is a matching in graph G = (V, E).
 A node of G is matched if it is incident to some edge in M.
Otherwise, it is exposed.
 An alternating path (cycle) with respect to M in G is a path (cycle) such that
the edges along the path (cycle) alternate between being in M and being in E –
M.
 An augmenting path is an alternating path between two exposed nodes.
(By necessity, an augmenting path has odd length.)
 Augmenting M along an augmenting path P is changing M to
MP = (M – P)  (P – M) (i.e., edges in M or in P but not both)
Note that |MP| = |M| + 1.

P
M MP

161
 The Augmenting Path Theorem
THEOREM: A matching M in a graph G has maximum cardinality

if and only if there is no augmenting path in G with respect to M.

Proof:
[]: Obvious.
[]: Suppose there is a matching M’ in G such that |M’| > |M|.
Consider MM’. Every node in MM’ has degree at most 2.
So MM’ consists of a node-disjoint collection of alternating paths and cycles.
Since there are more edges in M’ than in M, at least one of the connected
components in MM’ must be a path P that starts and ends in an edge in M’.
P is an augmenting path in G with respect to M.
M’ M

162
 Generic Max-Cardinality Matching Method
Algorithm MaxCardinalityMatching( G = (V,E) )
1. M
2. optimal  false
3. while not optimal do
§ O(V) iterations
4. Search for an augmenting path P in G wrt M § This is the key
step
5. if P found
6. then M  M  P
7. else optimal  true
8. end-while
9. return M
end In the following pages we sketch a method to do step 4 in O(VE) time.
 This results in an O(V2E)-time max-cardinality matching algorithm.
 The fastest known method takes O(V3) time.

163
 Matched & Exposed Nodes
FACT 1: If a node becomes matched, it will remain matched.
A u-augmenting-path is an augmenting path where exposed node u is one end of it.
FACT 2: If at some iteration there is no u-augmenting-path,
then there will never be a u-augmenting-path later on.
Proof sketch: Suppose there is no u-augmenting-path in M.
Suppose P is an augmenting path wrt M.
There cannot be a u-augmenting path in MP.

So, in our search, v P v’

we can test
each exposed node u
once, and only once,
as the starting node of
u’
an augmenting path. u
164
Search for a u-augmenting path

Grow a tree of alternating paths rooted at vertex u:

u’

165
Augmenting Path Search as Digraph Search

u v mate[v]

u mate[v]

transformation x
x mate[y]
y mate[y]

(x,y)  E – M  (x, mate[y])  E’

Now in the auxiliary digraph G’ = (V, E’), search for a directed path
from a node marked “exposed” (yellow)
to a “target” node (solid black: adjacent to an exposed node). 166
 Odd Cycles & Blossoms
Existence of odd length cycles creates further complications:
b c d b c d
a
a
f g h h
e f g
e
G, M: G’:
i j i j
augmenting path  directed path
(a, b, c, d, g, h, j, i, f, e)  (a, c, g, j, f)
?  (a, c, g, h, d, b)

blossom

Blossom: An odd length cycle B with each of its nodes incident to an edge in
MB, except for one node (base of the blossom) that has a mate outside 167
B.
 Discovering a Blossom
 When search of G’ from u visits a node x’ whose mate x has been visited.
 Backtrack up the search tree to lowest common ancestor of (x, x’)
to find base of the blossom.
u

x’ x
x’ = mate[x]

168
 Blossom Shrinking
Blossom Shrinking:
When a blossom B is discovered, we shrink it to a new single node called B that
inherits all incident edges to the blossom nodes. This can be done in O(E) time.

b c b c b c
d d d
a a a
f g f
e e B1 e B2
B1 h B2

i j i

FACT 3: Shrinking a blossom found during the search for a u-

augmenting path preserves existence (non-existence)
of augmenting paths.

FACT 4: There can be at most O(V) blossoms (possibly nested)

in an augmenting iteration.
169
 Blossom Expansion
Blossom Expansion:
When an augmenting path P is found, some of its nodes might be shrunken
blossom nodes.
Expand these blossoms back to their original state (in reverse order of nesting)
and re-route P appropriately through the expanded blossoms until the expanded
version of P is an augmenting path in G with no un-expanded blossom nodes.

u v B w u’

u v B

u’
w 170
 Max Cardinality Matching Algorithm
Algorithm MaxCardinalityMatching( G = (V,E) )
1. M
§ matching edges
2. UV
§ untested exposed nodes
3. while U   do
§ O(V) iterations
4. remove a node u from U
5. Search for a u-augmenting-path P in G wrt M
using the auxiliary digraph G’ and blossom
shrinking/expansion
6. if P found then do
7. remove the other end node u’ of P from U
8. MMP
9. end-if
10. end-while
THEOREM:
11. return M The above algorithm takes O(V E) time.
2

end
171
 Bibliography: Graph Matching
Recommended books in the area:
 L. Lovász, M.D. Plummer, “Matching Theory,” Volume 121 of Annals of Discrete Mathematics.
North Holland, 1986.
 C. Papadimitriou, K. Steiglitz, “Combinatorial Optimization: Algorithms and Complexity,”
1st edition, Prentice Hall, 1982; or 2 nd edition, Courier Dover, 1998.
 E.L. Lawler, “Combinatorial Optimization: Networks and Matroids,” Holt, Rinehart & Winston,
1976. [gives the first O(V3)-time non-bipartite matching algorithm]
Algorithms for bipartite matching have been known for some time:
 M. Hall Jr., “An algorithm for distinct representatives,” American Math. Monthly 63:716-717, 1956.
 L.R. Ford, Jr., D.R. Fulkerson, “Flows in Networks,” Princeton University Press, 1962.
The simple transformation of bipartite matching to max-flow was first pointed out by
 S. Even, R.E. Tarjan, “Network flow and testing graph connectivity,” SIAM J. Computing 4(4):507-
512, 1975.
The first polynomial time algorithm for non-bipartite matching is from
 Jack Edmonds, “Paths, trees, flowers,” Canadian Journal of Mathematics, 17:449-467, 1965.
 Jack Edmonds, “Matching and a polyhedron with 0-1 vertices,” J. Res. NBS, 69B:125-130, 1965.
[gives an algorithm for the weighted matching problem]
Faster than O(V3)-time algorithm for the geometric version of the problem was first discovered by
 P. Vaidya, “Geometry helps in matching,” STOC, pp: 422-425, 1988.
172
Exercises

173
1. Given the adjacency list structure of a graph G = (V, E), give an O(V+E)-time algorithm that
reorders the vertices in each adjacency list in sorted order (say numerically, or alphabetically).

2. [CLRS, Exercise 22.1-3, p. 592] The transpose of a digraph G = (V , E) is the digraph

GT = (V , ET ), where ET = { (v,u) | vV, uV, (u,v)E }. Thus, GT is G with all its edges
reversed. Describe efficient algorithms for computing G T from G, for both the adjacency list and
adjacency matrix representations of G. Analyze the running times of your algorithms.

3. [CLRS, Exercise 22.1-5, p. 593] The square of a digraph G = (V , E) is the digraph

G2 = (V , E2 ) such that (u,w)E2 if and only if for some vV, both (u,v)E and (v,w)E.
That is, G2 contains an edge from u to w whenever G contains a path from u to w with exactly
two edges. Describe efficient algorithms for computing G 2 from G for both the adjacency list and
adjacency matrix representations of G. Analyze the running times of your algorithms.

4. [CLRS, Exercise 22.1-6, p. 593] When an adjacency matrix representation is used, most graph
algorithms require time W(V2), but there are some exceptions. Show that determining whether a
digraph G contains a universal sink (a vertex with in-degree |V| – 1 and out-degree 0) can be
determined in time O(V), given the adjacency matrix for G.

5. [CLRS, Exercise 22.1-7, p. 593] The vertex-edge incidence matrix of a digraph G = (V, E)
is a matrix B[V,E] = (bue) such that
 1 if edge e leaves vertex u,

b ue    1 if edge e enters vertex u,
0 otherwise .

Describe what the entries of the matrix BB T represent, where BT is the transpose of B. 174
6. [BFS & DFS Example] Consider the example digraph G shown below.
We are given the adjacency list structure of G with each adjacency list alphabetically ordered.
(a) Show the BFS structure of G starting at the source vertex a.
Show the d and p values of each vertex.
(b) Do the same as in part (a), except that start at the source vertex j.
(c) Do a DFS of G (also assume DFS root scanning order is alphabetical).
Show the p values by our drawing convention, as well as the DFS starting and finishing time
stamps d and f for each vertex. Classify tree-, back-, forward-, and cross- edges.

a
G:
b c
e
d f

g h i j

7. [CLRS, Exercise 22.2-5, p. 602] Argue that in a BFS from a given source vertex, the value
d[u] assigned to each vertex u is independent of the order in which the vertices appear in each
adjacency list. However, show that the BFS tree structure (the p values) may depend on the
said ordering.
175
8. [CLRS, Exercise 22.2-6, p. 602] Give an example digraph G = (V, E), a source vertex sV, and
a set of tree edges Ep  E such that for each vertex vV, the unique path in the graph
(V, Ep ) from s to v is a shortest path in G, yet the set of edges E p cannot be produced by running
BFS on G, no matter how the vertices are ordered in each adjacency list.

9. [CLRS, Exercise 22.2-8, p. 602] The diameter of an un-weighted undirected tree T = (V, E) is
the largest of all shortest-path distances in the tree. Design and analyze an efficient algorithm to
compute the diameter of a given tree.

10. [CLRS, Exercise 22.2-9, p. 602] We are given a connected undirected graph G = (V, E) .
(a) Give an O(V+E)-time algorithm to compute a path in G that traverses each edge in E exactly
twice, once in each direction. The output should be the sequence of edges along such a path.
(b) Describe how you can find your way out of a maze if you are given a large supply of pennies.

11. [CLRS, Exercise 22.3-7, p. 611] Rewrite the procedure DFS, using a stack to eliminate recursion.

12. [CLRS, Exercise 22.3-8, p. 611] Give a counter-example to the conjecture that if there is a path
from u to v in a digraph G, and if d[u] < d[v] in a DFS of G, then v is a descendant of u in the DFS
forest produced.

13. [CLRS, Exercise 22.3-9, p. 612] Give a counter-example to the conjecture that if there is a path
from u to v in a digraph G, then any DFS must result in d[v]  f[u].

14. [CLRS, Exercise 22.3-12, p. 612] Give an O(V+E)-time algorithm that outputs the vertex set of
each connected component of a given undirected graph G = (V, E).
176
15. Tree Broadcast:
The CEO of a large company has an urgent and important message, and she needs to notify every employee by
phone. The company hierarchy can be described by a tree T, rooted at the CEO, in which each other node v has a
parent node u where u is the direct superior officer of v, and v is a direct subordinate of u. To notify everyone of
the message, the CEO first calls each of her direct subordinates, one at a time. As soon as each subordinate gets the
phone call, he or she must notify each of his or her direct subordinates, one at a time. The process continues this
way until everyone has been notified. (Note that each person in this process can only call direct subordinates on the
phone.) We can picture this process as being divided into rounds. In one round, each person who has already
learned the message can call one of his or her direct subordinates on the phone. [Interpret T as a digraph (each edge
directed from parent to child) given by its adjacency list structure. So, Adj[x] is the list of direct subordinates of
employee x.] The number of rounds it takes for everyone to be notified depends on the order in which each
person calls their direct subordinates. For example, in Figure (1) below, it will take only two rounds if A starts by
calling B, but it will take three rounds if A starts by calling D.
a) Consider the example Figure (2). Show an optimum solution by labeling each edge by its round number.
What is the required minimum number of rounds?
b) Define MinRounds(x) to be the minimum number of rounds it takes, counted from the time employee x learns
the message, to broadcast the message to all subordinates of x (i.e., all nodes in the subtree rooted at x).
Develop a recurrence that expresses MinRounds(x) in terms of that of its direct subordinates MinRounds(y),
yAdj[x]. [Hint: In Figure (3) suppose MinRounds(B) = 15, MinRounds(C) = 16, MinRounds(D) = 15. In what order should
A call its direct subordinates B, C, D? What is MinRounds(A)?]
c) Using part (b), design an efficient algorithm that takes as input a broadcast tree T (rooted at root[T]) given by
its adjacency list structure, and outputs the minimum number of rounds needed to broadcast a message in T.
d) Analyze the worst-case time complexity of your algorithm in (c) as a function of n (# nodes in T).
CEO A

A
B C D
B D

C Fig (1). Fig (2).

177
Fig (3).
16. [CLRS, Exercise 22.4-1, p. 614] Run the Topological Sort Algorithm of the example DAG of
Fig (a) below and show the pertinent results.

17. A Hamiltonian path in a directed graph G=(V,E) is a directed simple path that visits each vertex
of G exactly once. (Note that we are referring to a Hamiltonian path, not a cycle.) In general, the
problem of deciding whether a given digraph has a Hamiltonian path is known to be NP-complete.
(a) Does the graph shown in Fig (b) below contain a Hamiltonian path?
If yes, show one by highlighting the edges on the path.
(b) If the graph G happens to be a DAG, how does finding a topological sort of G help in
finding a Hamiltonian path of G?

m n o p

q r s

t u v w
Fig (b)
x y z

Fig (a)
178
18. [CLRS, Exercise 22.4-2, p. 614] Give a linear-time algorithm that takes as input a DAG G and two
vertices s and t, and returns the number of paths from s to t in G. For example, in the digraph in
Fig (a) on the previous page, there are exactly 4 paths from vertex p to vertex v: pov, poryv, posryv,
psryv. (Your algorithm needs to give the number of paths, not list them.)

19. [CLRS, Exercise 22.4-3, p. 615] Give an algorithm that determines whether or not a given
undirected graph G = (V, E) contains a cycle. Your algorithm should run in O(V) time,
independent of |E|.

20. [CLRS, Exercise 22.4-4, p. 615] Prove or disprove: If a digraph G contains cycles, then
TopologicalSort(G) produces a vertex ordering that minimizes the number of “bad” edges that are
inconsistent with the ordering produced.

21. [CLRS, Exercise 22.4-5, p. 615] Another way to perform topological sorting on a DAG G = (V, E) is
to repeatedly find a vertex of in-degree 0, output it, and remove it and all its outgoing edges from the
graph. Explain how to implement this idea so that it runs in time O(V+E).
What happens to the algorithm if G has cycles?

22. [CLRS, Problem 22-3, p. 623] An Euler tour of a connected graph G = (V, E) is a cycle that
traverses each edge of G exactly once, although it may visit a vertex more than once.
G is Eulerian if it has an Euler tour.
(a) Show that a connected digraph G is Eulerian if and only if in-degree(v) = out-degree(v) vV.
(b) Show that a connected undirected graph G is Eulerian if and only if degree(v) is even vV.
(c) Describe an O(E)-time algorithm to find an Euler tour of G if one exists, once assuming G is
directed, and once assuming G is undirected.
[Hint: Merge edge-disjoint cycles.]
179
23. The algorithm below is purported to find an Euler tour in a given Eulerian undirected graph G.

Algorithm EulerTour (G)

Pre-Cond: G is an undirected Eulerian graph.
Post-Cond: Outputs a cycle in G
1. Perform a DFS traversal of G and number the vertices in DFS-preorder.
2. Re-initialize all vertices and edges of G as unused.
3. Produce a cycle as follows:
Start from the vertex with preorder number 1 (computed in step 1), and
repeatedly go to the vertex with highest preorder number possible along an unused
edge.
Stop when all edges incident to the current vertex are used.
end

For example, if the figure below is the DFS structure after step 1, then in step 3 the algorithm will
produce the cycle a, g, d, f, e, d, a, c, b, a. This is indeed an Euler tour of the graph.

Give a counter-example to show that the above algorithm is not always capable of finding an
Euler tour, even though there exists one. Therefore, the algorithm does not work!
[Hint: the smallest counter-example has less than 10 vertices.]
a
1 d
b 2 4
g 7
e
c 5
3 f
6 180
24. Show how the Strongly Connected Components (SCC) algorithm as presented in this lecture slide
works on the graph shown below. (Assume adjacency lists are alphabetically ordered.)
(a) Show the stack and the DFS-structure after step 1.
(b) Show the DFS-structure of the transpose graph G T after step 3.
(c) Show the SCC Component graph of G.
25. [CLRS, Exercise 22.5-5, p. 620] Give an O(V+E)-time algorithm to compute the SCC
Component graph of a digraph G = (V, E). Make sure that there is at most one edge between two
vertices in the component graph that your algorithm produces.
26. We say a digraph is weakly connected if its undirected version (i.e., ignoring the directions on the
edges) is a connected undirected graph.
Let G be a digraph in which for every vertex v, indegree(v) = outdegree(v). Then show that G is
strongly connected if and only if it is weakly connected.
27. [CLRS, Exercise 22.5-6, p. 621] Given a digraph G = (V, E), explain how to create another
digraph G’ = (V, E’) such that
(i) The strongly connected components of G and G’ form the same vertex partition of
V,
(ii) G’ has the same SCC Component graph as G, and
(iii) E’ is as small as possible. [Note: E’ may not necessarily be a subset of E.]
Describe an efficient algorithm to compute G’. a

b c

e
d f

g h i j 181
28. Treasure Hunt:
You are given a directed graph G = (V , E), where each node vV in the graph has a certain
amount of money m(v) > 0 sitting on it. You are also given vertices s, t V . The goal is to start at
s and follow a directed path in G to reach t, picking up as much money along the way as you
can. You may visit the same node more than once, but once you have picked up the money at
that node, it is gone. Define M(G, m, s, t) to be the maximum money that can be picked up on
any path in G from s to t (paths need not be simple).
a) Show M(G, m, s, t) and a corresponding optimum st-path for the instance shown in the
Figure below.
b) Design and analyze an efficient algorithm to compute M(G, m, s, t).
(You are not required to compute the optimum st-path.)
For full credit, your algorithm should run in time O( |V| + |E| ). [Hint: think about SCC.]

5
9 4 3

9 4 3 5

2
1 2 6

s 1 2 6 2 t

3
2 4 8

2 4 3 8

182
29. The City Hall has decided to convert every down-town street to a one-way street without
restricting traffic accessibility, i.e., we should still be able to drive from any city block to any
other city block without ever leaving the down-town area.
The problem is how to assign one-way directions to the down-town streets to achieve the City
Hall's objective.
This can be formulated as a graph problem as follows: We are given an undirected connected
graph G = (V, E). We want to assign a (one way) direction to each edge of G in such a way that
the resulting directed graph G’ = (V , E’ ) is strongly connected.
In this case we say G’ is a strong orientation of G.
We say G is strongly orientable, if it has at least one strong orientation.
(a) The graph shown below is strongly orientable. Show one of its strong orientations by
assigning an appropriate direction to each of its edges.
(b) Show that a connected undirected graph G is strongly orientable if and only if it has no
bridges. A bridge is an edge whose removal will disconnect the graph.
[Note: make sure to prove both directions of the “if and only if”.]
(c) Using DFS and part (b), design and analyze an efficient algorithm to construct a strong
orientation of a given undirected graph G if there is one; otherwise, report that no strong
orientation of G exists, and as a witness output a bridge in G.
Justify the correctness and time complexity of your algorithm.
a b c d e

f g h i

j l m n
k
183
30. [CLRS, Exercise 22.5-7, p. 621] A digraph G = (V, E) is said to be semi-connected if, for all
pairs of vertices u, v V, at least one of u or v is reachable from the other.
Design and analyze an efficient algorithm to determine whether or not G is semi-connected.

31. Given a digraph G = (V, E) and three of its vertices x, y, z V, give an efficient algorithm that
determines whether or not G has a cycle that includes vertices x and y but excludes vertex z.

32. Trace the BiConnectivity algorithm on the example graph G shown below.
Show the articulation points and the biconnected components of G.

33. Let G = (V, E) be a biconnected graph. Let (v,w)E. Start with the graph G’ = ( {v,w}, {(v,w)}).
A petal is a simple path in G whose two end nodes are its only nodes that are also in G’.
Describe an on-line algorithm AddPetal(s,t), where s is a node of G’ and (s,t) is an edge of G not
in G’. AddPetal(s,t) finds a petal starting with edge (s,t), and adds the nodes and edges of that petal
to G’. The execution of any on-line sequence of AddPetal operations should take O(E) time.

a b c d e f

g h i j k l

m n o p q r
184
34. Biconnectification Problem: given a connected undirected graph G, add a minimum number of
new edges to G to make it biconnected.

Let us first consider the simpler case when G is a tree. Let L be the set of leaves of G.

(a) Show that in this case there is always a solution where the added edges are between nodes in L.
(b) Show that there is a feasible solution where the added edges form a spanning tree of L.
Hence, the optimum number of new edges needed is at most |L| – 1.
(c) Can you characterize the optimum solution?

Now consider the general case. Suppose the biconnected components of G are
Gi , for i = 1..k, and let A denote the set of articulation points of G.
Define the skeleton graph Ĝ of G as follows:
V(Ĝ) = {Gi | i = 1..k}  A
E(Ĝ) = {(Gi , x) | xA V(Gi)}

(d) Show that Ĝ is a tree.

(See the illustrative figure below. How many new edges need to be added?)

(e) Design & analyze an efficient algorithm to solve the problem using (a-d) above.
x
Ĝ: x G3
G: G3
G2 z G2 z
y G4 y G4
G1 G5
G5
G6 G1
G6 185
35. Consider an arbitrary iteration of the generic MST algorithm that uses the Red and Blue Rules with
the Red-Blue Invariant. The set B of blue edges at that point forms a forest of one or more blue
components. By the Red-Blue Invariant we know that there is an MST T that contains B. Assume
we still have more than one blue component. Form a cut C by partitioning these blue components
into two non-empty subsets. Consider an arbitrary edge e of T that crosses the cut C. Give a
counter-example to the conjecture that e must be a min-weight cross edge of the cut C.

36. Is the following divide-&-conquer algorithm guaranteed to find a MST of a given graph G? :
Divide V(G) in two arbitrary subsets of roughly equal size X and Y. Let G’ and G’’ be the
subgraphs of G induced by X and Y, respectively. Recursively find an MST T’ of G’ and an MST
T’’ of G’’. Let e be the minimum weight edge of G incident to X and to Y.
Return T = T’  T”  {e} as the MST of G.

37. [CLRS, Exercise 23.1-4, p. 629] Give a simple example of a graph G such that the edge set
{ eE(G) | e is a minimum-weight cross edge of some cut in G} does not form a MST of G.

38. [CLRS, Exercise 23.1-6, p. 630] Show that a graph G has a unique MST if, for every cut of G,
there is a unique minimum-weight crossing edge of the cut.
Show that the converse is not true by giving a counter-example.

39. [CLRS, Exercise 23.1-9, p. 630] Let T be a MST of G, and let V’ be a subset of V(G). Let T’ be the
subgraph of T induced by V’, and let G’ be the subgraph of G induced by V’. Show that if T’ is
connected, then T’ is a MST of G’.

40. [CLRS, Exercise 23.2-4, 23.2-5, p. 637]

(a) Suppose that all edge weights in a graph are integers in the range 1 to |V|. How fast can you
make Kruskal’s algorithm run? What if the edge weights are integers in the range 1 to W
for a given positive integer W? Express the running time in terms of the graph size and W.
(b) Answer these same questions with respect to Prim’s algorithm. 186
 a 10 b 5 c 7 d 15 e

3 8 11 9 16 4 6
f g 8 17 i j
19 h 2
9 3 4 7 18 19 8

k 4 l 6 m 14 n 4 o

41. We want to explore some MST properties of the graph shown above.
(a) Show the sequence of edges in the order that they are added to the MST using Kruskal's
algorithm. Highlight the chosen MST edges in the graph, and indicate in what order they
are added to the MST (e.g., by labeling them 1, 2, 3, ...).
(b) Show the sequence of edges in the order that they are added to the MST using Prim's
algorithm, starting from vertex a.
(c) Suppose we decide to change the weight of edge (a, b) to any real number from - to +.
What is the interval of weight values for this edge, for which the spanning tree in part (a)
above (as a set of edges) remains an MST of the new graph. Explain your answer.
(d) Suppose we decide to change the weight of edge (i, j) to any real number from - to +.
What is the interval of weight values for this edge, for which the spanning tree in part (a)
above remains an MST of the graph. Explain your answer.

42. Let T be a MST of G = (V, E, w). Suppose the weight w(e) of one of the edges eE is altered. (a)
Characterize the complete real valued range for w(e) for which T still remains a MST of G.
Consider two cases depending on whether e T or e T.
(b) Using the characterization in part (a), describe an algorithm to update the MST T if the
weight w(e) of a given edge eE changes to a new given value w’.

187
43. [CLRS, Problem 23-3, p. 640] Bottleneck Spanning Tree (BST) Problem:
Let T be any spanning tree of a given weighted connected undirected graph G.
The bottleneck value of T is defined to be the maximum edge weight among edges of T.
We say T is a bottleneck spanning tree (BST) of G if bottleneck value of T is minimum among all
spanning trees of G. The Bottleneck Spanning Tree Problem is to compute a BST of G.

(a) Show a graph G with two of its bottleneck spanning trees such that only one of them is a
minimum spanning tree.

(b) Show that any minimum spanning tree is always a bottleneck spanning tree.
[This shows that finding a bottleneck spanning tree is no harder than finding a minimum
spanning tree. In the remaining parts, we will show that one can be found in linear time.]

(c) Give a linear-time algorithm that, given a graph G and a real number b, determines whether
bottleneck value of a BST of G is at most b. (Note: no BST of G is given.)
[Hint: consider the edges of G that have weight at most b. Do they contain a spanning tree?]

(d) Use your algorithm for part (c) as a subroutine to design a linear-time algorithm for the
Bottleneck Spanning Tree Problem. [Hint: use prune-&-search and the hint for part (c)]

44. Let T be an arbitrary spanning tree of a weighted connected undirected graph G = (V, E, w).
Let L(T) = e1, e2, …, en-1 be the list of edges in T sorted in non-decreasing order of weight, that
is, w(e1)  w(e2)  …  w(en-1), where n = |V(G)|.
Let T’ be another spanning tree of G with L(T’) = e’1, e’2, …, e’n-1 sorted in the same manner.

(a) Prove that if T is a MST of G, then w(ek)  w(e’k), for all k = 1..n-1.

(b) Show that if T and T’ are both MSTs of G, then w(e k) = w(e’k), for all k = 1..n-1. 188
45. Let us say a connected weighted undirected graph G = (V, E, w) is a near-tree if |E|  |V| + 8.
Design and analyze an algorithm with running time O(V) that takes a near-tree G and returns a
MST of G. (You may assume that all the edge weights are distinct.)

46. Suppose you are given a directed graph G = (V, E) with arbitrary real valued costs on its edges
and a sink vertex tV. Edge costs may be negative, zero, or positive. Assume that you are also
given finite values d(v) for all vV. Someone claims that, for each vertex vV, the quantity d(v)
is the cost of the shortest path from vertex v to the sink t.

(a) Give a linear-time algorithm that verifies whether this claim is correct.

(b) Assume in part (a) the verification turns out correct.

Now you are asked to compute distances to a different sink t′V.
Design and analyze an O( E log V) time algorithm for computing the shortest path distances
d′(v) for all vertices vV to the new sink t′.
(Remember that G may have negative cost edges.)

47. Show that the single source longest paths in a weighted DAG can be computed in linear time.

48. A tournament is a directed graph formed by taking the complete undirected graph and assigning
arbitrary directions on the edges, i.e. a graph G = (V,E) such that for each u,vV, exactly one of
(u,v) or (v,u) is in E. Show that every tournament has a Hamiltonian path, that is, a path that visits
every vertex exactly once.

189
49. Color Constrained Single Source Shortest Paths:
Design and analyze an efficient algorithm for the following problem:
Input: A digraph G = (V, E) in which each node vV is allocated a color c(v){red,blue};
and a source node sV.
Output: For each node vV, find a path from s to v that contains the minimum number of red
nodes (including s and v).

50. Another Color Constrained Single Source Shortest Paths:

Modify Dijkstra’s algorithm to solve the problem:
Input: A weighted digraph G = (V, E, w), in which each node vV is allocated a color
c(v){red,blue}; a source node sV; and a positive integer K.
Output: For each vertex vV, find the shortest path from s to v subject to the constraint that it does
not contain more than K red nodes (including s and v).
[Hint: For each vertex vV and integer r[0..K] extend the definitions of d[v] and p[v] in
Dijkstra’s algorithm from the one parameter v to two parameters v and r, in order to account for not
only (the weight of) the path from s to v, but also something about the number of red nodes on that
path.]

51. [CLRS, Exercises 24.3-8 & 24.3-9, p. 664] Modify Dijkstra's algorithm so that it runs faster when
all the edge weights are restricted to being in the integer range [0..W], where W is a given positive
integer.
(a) Give a O(W V + E ) time algorithm.
(b) Give a O((V+E) log W ) time algorithm. [Hint: implement the priority queue by buckets.]

52. We are given the adjacency matrix of an un-weighted directed graph G = (V, E). For each pair of
vertices s,tV, compute the number of simple paths in G from s to t.

190
53. [CLRS, Exercise 24.3-6, p. 663] We are given a digraph G = (V, E) on which each edge (u,v) 
E has an associated value r(u,v), which is a real number in the range 0  r(u,v)  1 that
represents the reliability of a communication channel from vertex u to vertex v. We interpret
r(u,v) as the probability that the channel from u to v will not fail, and we assume that these
probabilities are independent. Thus, the reliability of a path is the product of the reliabilities of
its edges. Give an efficient algorithm to find the most reliable path between two given vertices.

54. [CLRS, Exercise 25.3-4, p. 705] Suppose instead of the Edmonds-Karp & Johnson’s edge
weight transformation, we use the following simpler and faster strategy:
Let w* = min { w(u,v) | (u,v)  E(G) }.
Define ŵ(u,v) = w(u,v) – w* for all edges (u,v)  E(G).
What is wrong with this edge weight transformation?

55. A Variation of the Single Source Shortest Paths (SSSP):

Input: a digraph G with profit labels on nodes and cost labels on edges; and a source sV(G).
Define Cost(path P) := sum of costs of edges on P minus sum of profits of nodes on P.
Design and analyze an efficient algorithm for this version of the SSSP problem.
[Hint: Transform it to the standard SSSP problem.]

191
56. Single-source bottleneck paths problem (SSBPP): Given a weighted digraph G =(V, E, w),
define the bottleneck cost of a path to be the maximum of the weights of the edges on the path.
The optimum bottleneck path from a vertex s to a vertex t is a path from s to t in G with
minimum bottleneck cost (i.e., the heaviest edge on the path is as light as possible). The problem
is: given a source vertex sV find the optimum bottleneck paths from s to each vertex in G.
(a) Consider the example digraph shown below.
(i) What is the bottleneck cost of the path ( a, e, f )?
(ii) What is the optimum bottleneck path from vertex a to f?
(iii) What is the bottleneck cost of that path?
(b) Describe how to modify the initialization and the labeling step of Ford's single-source
shortest paths method for the solution of SSBPP.
(c) Would the existence of negative cost edges create any complication in part (b)? Explain.
(d) Describe an algorithm that solves SSBPP in O(V+E) time if G is a DAG.
(e) Design and analyze an efficient algorithm that solves SSBPP on a general digraph.
[Hint: Modify Dijkstra's algorithm.]

a 2 b 5 c

7 8 4 3 6
d 3 e 4 f

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57. [CLRS, Exercise 25.2-1, p. 699] Run the Floyd-Warshall algorithm on the weighted digraph
shown below. Show the d and p matrices after each iteration of the outer k-loop.

a 1 b 4 c

5 10
-4 7 -8
4 -1
d e f
3

58. Transitive Closure: The problem is to compute the transitive closure of a digraph G = (V, E), given
its adjacency list structure.
(a) Describe an O(VE) time algorithm assuming G is a DAG.
(b) Describe an O(VE) time algorithm for a general digraph G.
[Hint: compute strongly connected components first.]

59. Even length paths: We are given the 0/1 adjacency matrix A[V, V] of an n vertex directed graph G
= (V, E). Assume all diagonal entries of A are 0 (i.e., G has no self-loops).
We want to compute the 0/1 matrix P[V, V], such that for all vertices u and v in G,
P[u,v] = 1 if and only if there is a path of even length from vertex u to v in G, where the length of a
path is the number of edges on it. Design and analyze an efficient algorithm for this problem.
[Hint: also think about odd length paths.]

193
60. [CLRS, Problem 24-2, p. 678] Nesting Boxes
A d-dimensional box with dimensions (x 1, x2, …, xd) nests within another box with dimensions
(y1, y2, …, yd) if there exists a permutation p[1..d] such that xp(1)  y1, xp(2)  y2, … , xp(d)  yd.
(a) Argue that nesting relation is transitive.
(b) Describe an efficient method to determine whether or not one box nests inside another.
(c) Suppose that you are given a set of n d-dimensional boxes {B(1), B(2), …, B(n)}.
Describe an efficient algorithm to determine the longest sequence B(i1), B(i2), …, B(ik) of
boxes such that B(ij) nests within B(ij+1) for j = 1, 2, …, k-1.
Express the running time of your algorithm in terms of n and d.

61. [CLRS, Problem 24-3, p. 679] Arbitrage

Arbitrage is the use of discrepancies in currency exchange rates to transform one unit of currency
into more than one unit of the same currency. For example, suppose that 1 U.S. dollar buys 46.4
Indian rupees, 1 Indian rupee buys 2.5 Japanese yen, and 1 Japanese yen buys 0.0091 U.S. dollar.
Then, by converting currencies, a trader can start with 1 U.S. dollar and buy 46.42.50.0091 =
1.0556 U.S. dollars, thus turning a profit of 5.56 percent.
Suppose that we are given n currencies c(1), c(2), …, c(n) and an n  n table R of exchange
rates, such that one unit of currency c(i) buys R[i,j] units of currency c(j).

(a) Design and analyze an efficient algorithm to determine whether or not there exists a
sequence of currencies c(i1), c(i2), …, c(ik) such that

R[i1 , i2 ] · R[i2 , i3 ] · · · R[ik-1 , ik ] · R[ik , i1 ] > 1.

(b) Design and analyze an efficient algorithm to print out such a sequence if one exists.

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62. [CLRS, Exercise 26.2-11, p. 731] Edge Connectivity
The edge connectivity of an undirected graph is the minimum number k of edges that must be
removed to disconnect the graph. For example, the edge connectivity of a tree is 1, and the edge
connectivity of a cyclic chain of vertices is 2. Show how the edge connectivity of an undirected
graph G = (V, E) can be determined by running a maximum flow algorithm on at most |V| flow
networks, each having O(V) vertices and O(E) edges.

63. Max Flow Example: Consider the flow network shown below with source s and terminal t. The
labels on edges are of the form “f / c” where f is the flow and c is the capacity of the edge. This
flow is feasible.
Start from this given feasible flow and augment it to a max-flow using augmenting
iterations of Ford-Fulkerson's max-flow-min-cut algorithm.
(In each iteration you are free to choose any augmenting path.)
(a) Clearly show each augmentation stage of the algorithm.
(b) Show the final max-flow. What is the net value of the max-flow from s to t?
(c) Show the minimum st-cut. What is the min-cut capacity?

a 1/4 b 5/6 c
4/9 5/5
2/5 2/4

s 5/5 1/3 1/5 t

1/4 1/7
3/8 2/12
d e f
7/8 3/5
195
64. Max Flow Min Cut:
a) Below we have an instance of a flow network with the source s and terminal t and edge capacities shown.
Show the max flow and the min cut on the same figure.
Also give the value of that flow and the capacity of that st-cut.

Now answer parts (b) – (d) below for a general Flow Network G = (V, E, c, s, t):

b) Given a flow f for a flow network G, how would you algorithmically determine whether f is a feasible flow
for G in O( |V| + |E| ) time?
c) Given a feasible flow f for a flow network G, how would you algorithmically determine whether f is a max
flow for G in O( |V| + |E| ) time?
d) Given a max flow f for a flow network G, how would you algorithmically determine a min capacity st-cut
for G in O( |V| + |E| ) time?
9
a b

a b
10 3
8
6 t

5 4
s

s t

15
9
c d

c d
7

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65. [CLRS, Problem 26-1, p. 760] Escape Problem
An nn grid is an undirected graph consisting of n rows and n columns of vertices, as shown
below. We denote the vertex in row i and column j by (i,j). All vertices in a grid have exactly 4
neighbors, except for the boundary vertices, which are points (i,j) for which i=1, i=n, j=1 or j=n.
Given m  n2 starting points (x1 , y1), (x2 , y2), …, (xm , ym) in the grid, the escape
problem is to determine whether or not there are m vertex-disjoint paths from the starting points
to any m different points on the boundary. For example, the grid in Fig (a) below has an escape,
but the one in Fig (b) does not.
(a) Consider a flow network in which vertices, as well as edges, have capacities. That is, the
total positive flow entering any given vertex is subject to a capacity constraint. Show that
determining the maximum flow in a network with edge and vertex capacities can be reduced

(or transformed) to an ordinary max-flow problem on a flow network of comparable size.

(b) Describe and analyze an efficient algorithm to solve the escape problem.

(a) (b)
197
66. [CLRS, Problem 26-2, p. 761] Minimum Path Cover
A path cover of a digraph G = (V, E) is a set P of vertex-disjoint paths such that every vertex in V
is included in exactly one path in P. Paths may start and end anywhere, and they may be of any
length, including 0. A minimum path cover of G is a path cover containing the fewest possible
paths.

(a) Give an efficient algorithm to find a minimum path cover of a DAG G = (V, E).
[Hint: Construct the graph G’ = (V’, E’), where
V’ = {s, t}  {xu | uV }  {yv | vV } ,
E’ = {(s , xu) | uV }  {(yv , t) | vV }  {(xu , yv) | (u,v)E } ,
and run a max flow algorithm.]

(b) Does your algorithm work for digraphs that contain cycles? Explain.

67. [CLRS, Problem 26-4, p. 762] Updating Maximum Flow

Let G = (V, E) be a flow network with source s, sink t, and integer capacities.
Suppose that we are given a maximum flow in G.

(a) Suppose that the capacity of a single edge (u,v)E is increased by 1.

Give an O(V+E) time algorithm to update the max flow.

(b) Suppose that the capacity of a single edge (u,v)E is decreased by 1.

Give an O(V+E) time algorithm to update the max flow.

198
68. [CLRS, Exercise 26.3-4, p. 735] Perfect Matching
A perfect matching is a matching in which every vertex is matched. Let G = (V, E) be an
undirected bipartite graph with vertex bipartition V = L  R, where |L| = |R|. For any X V,
define the neighborhood of X as
N(X) = { y V | (x,y)  E for some x  X} ,
that is, the set of vertices adjacent to some member of X. Prove Hall’s Theorem: there exists a
perfect matching in G if and only if |A|  |N(A)| for every subset A  L.

69. A Dancing Problem: There are n boys and n girls. Each boy knows exactly k girls, and each girl
knows exactly k boys, for some positive integer k.
Assume “knowing” is symmetric: boy b knows girl g  g knows b.
We can represent this by the bipartite acquaintance graph G, in which each boy and each girl is
represented by a vertex, and there is an edge (b,g) in the graph between boy b and girl g if and
only if b and g know each other. We have
vV(G): degree(v) = k.

(a) Show that G has a perfect matching.

Interpretation: we can pair boys and girls into n pairs for a paired dancing contest.
[Hint: use the max flow integrality theorem.]

(b) Show that E(G) is the disjoint union of exactly k perfect matchings.
Interpretation: We can have k dancing rounds, where in each round every one dances with a

dancing partner of the opposite sex that he/she knows, and no one dances with the same
partner in two different rounds.

(c) Suppose we change the above equality

“vV(G): degree(v) = k” to “vV(G): degree(v)  k”. 199
 a b c

d e
f g h i

j k l m n

o p q
70. Does the matching shown in the graph above have maximum cardinality?
If not, augment it to a max cardinality matching.
(a) You may find augmenting paths by visual inspection.
(b) Now find augmenting paths using BFS in the auxiliary digraph
and blossom shrinking & expansion.

71. Maximum Cardinality Matching in a tree

Design and analyze an O(n)-time algorithm that finds a maximum cardinality matching in a given
tree with n nodes. Carefully prove correctness & optimality.

72. A node cover C of a graph G = (V, E) is any subset of V such that every edge in E is incident to
some node in C. Suppose G is a bipartite graph, M is a maximum cardinality matching, and C is
a minimum cardinality node cover of G. Show that |M| = |C|.

200
73. Perfect Matching: Reduction from general graphs to degree 3 graphs
Consider the following reduction of the matching problem from general graphs to degree 3 graphs.
Given a graph G with n nodes, construct a graph G’ as follows. For every node i of G take the
smallest complete binary tree with at least n leaves and insert a node in the middle of every edge; let
Ti be the resulting tree. The graph G’ has a tree T i for every node i of G, and for every edge (i, j) of
G, G’ has an edge connecting the jth leaf of Ti to the ith leaf of Tj .
a) Show that, for any i, Ti minus any one of its leaf nodes contains a perfect matching.
b) Show that G has a perfect matching if and only if G’ has a perfect matching.
c) Verify that the above reduction takes polynomial time.

74. Suppose that a given graph G = (V, E) has no isolated nodes.

An edge cover of G is a subset C of E such that every node in V is incident to some edge in C.
a) Show that if C is a minimum cardinality edge cover of G and M is a maximum cardinality
matching of G, then |C| + |M| = |V|.
b) Give an efficient algorithm to find a minimum cardinality edge cover of a graph.

75. If G = (V, E) is a graph with V = {1,2, …, n}, let us define the Tutte matrix of G, T(G), to be the
nn matrix defined as follows:
 xij if (i, j)  E & i j

T (G ) ij  xij if (i, j)  E & i j
0 otherwise

where xij’s are indeterminates (i.e., variables).
Show that G has a complete matching (i.e., a matching with at most one unmatched node)
if and only if det(T(G))  0. 201
76. An undirected graph is called d-regular if all its vertices have degree d.
a) Show that any d-regular bipartite graph with has a perfect matching.
b) Show a 3-regular graph that has no perfect marching.

77. Let J = {J1 , J2 , …, Jn} be a set of jobs to be executed on two processors with all jobs requiring the
same amount of time (say 1). Suppose that there is a directed acyclic graph P = (J, E), called the
precedence graph, such that if (J1 , J2)E, then J1 must be executed before J2.
The Two-Processor Scheduling Problem with Precedence Constraints is:
Given P, find an optimal schedule; that is, a function S: J  {1,2, …, T} such that
(i) For all t  T, |{Jk  J : S(Jk) = t }|  2,
(ii) if (J1 , J2)E then S(J1) < S(J2) ,
(iii) T is as small as possible.

a) Consider the undirected graph GP = (J, EP), where (J1 , J2)EP if and only if there is no path
from J1 to J2 , nor one from J2 to J1 , in P. Suppose that M is a maximum cardinality matching
of GP. Show that the smallest T achievable must obey
T  |J| – |M|.
b) Show that there is always a schedule with T = |J| – |M|.
c) Give an efficient algorithm for finding the optimal schedule.

202
END

203