EEE 2303

CIRCUIT AND NETWORK THEORY III

Introduction

By

Prof. Hinga, PhD (Eng) FIET

1
 Introduction
 Electrical circuit or network consists of an
interconnection of various elements; basic ones are
resistors, capacitors and inductors
i1 i2
+
+
-
v1 v2
Fig. 1: A two-port network
-

 The voltages and currents of the network shown in

Fig. 1 can be related by driving point (DP) functions
and transfer functions (TF).
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 DP functions relate voltage and current at the
same port (impedance and admittance
functions)
 TF relate voltage/current at one port to the
voltage/current at the other port (voltage &
current TF, transfer impedance & admittance
functions).
 The voltage TF is often specified in filter design.
 The general form of a network function in the s-
domain (s is the complex frequency) is

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 am s m  am  1 s m  1  ........  a0 N ( s )
G( s)   ….. (1)
n n 1
bn s  bn 1 s  ........  b0 D( s )
Where am 0, bn 0, and all the coefficients ai & bi are
real.
 G(s) can be factored and written as
am  s  z1  s  z2 .......  s  zm  N1 ( s)
G( s)  H
bn  s  p1  s  p2 .......  s  pn  D1 ( s )
The values of s = z1 , z2 that make G(s) = 0 are the zeros
of G(s)
The values of s = p1 , p2 that make G(s) = ∞ are the poles
G(s) 4
• The poles of G(s) are also called the characteristic
or natural frequencies of the system
• There are as many zeros and poles as the order of
N(s) and D(s) respectively.
• The poles and zeros can be plotted on the complex
s-plane as shown in Fig. 2
jω
x
 - zero
 - pole
σ s   j

x
5
Fig. 2: Poles and zeros
 Properties of network functions
 Complex poles and zeros must occur in conjugate
pairs
 The network poles must lie on the left-hand-side
plane for stability
Time domain Frequency domain

f(t) = e
1
σt
F ( s) 
s 
f(t) σ>0
jω
σ=0
x x x
σ<0 σ 0
σ
t 6
 Time domain Frequency domain
f ( t ) e t sin  t

f(t) F ( s) 
σ<0
 s   2
  2

x jω x x
f(t)
t σ=0 σ 0 σ
x x x

f(t)
t
σ>0
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 Circuit analysis refers to the determination of the
circuit response (output) to a given input or
excitation.
 Circuit synthesis involves the design of a circuit
that will produce an output related to the input
in some prescribed manner.
 Frequency response of a circuit is the variation in
an output quantity with changes in frequency.

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 Example 1

The independent source V1 excites the

network shown in Fig. 3. Obtain:
i. I1(s)/V1 (s)
ii. the system TF V2(s)/V1 (s)

Z1 R = 1
I1 +
+ Z2
V1 L=1 C=1
V2
- -
Fig. 3 9
 I1 ( s ) 1
i)  where Z ( s )  Z1 ( s )  Z 2 ( s )
V1 ( s ) Z ( s )

1 s 2 LC  1
  2
R  sL s RLC  sL  R
s 2 LC  1

s2  1
 2
s  s 1
V2 ( s ) Z2 ( s)
ii) T ( s )  
V1 ( s ) Z1 ( s )  Z 2 ( s )
Z1 ( s )  R and Z 2 ( s )  X L ( s ) // X C ( s )
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 sL. 1 sL
Z2 ( s)  sC  2
sL  1 s LC  1
sC
sL 2
s LC  1 sL
T ( s)  
R sL 2
sL  s 2
RLC  R
s LC  1
s
T ( s)  2
s  s 1
Zero at s 0
 1j 3
Poles at s1 , s2 
2
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 Filters
 A filter is a circuit used to shape the frequency
spectrum of an electrical signal e.g. recovery of a signal
that has been corrupted by noise.
 Filtering involves the retention and rejection of signals
of a given frequency range or band.
 The components of a signal that are rejected are
attenuated by the filter whereas those that are retained
are not attenuated over a given frequency band.
 If T is the filter’s TF, the attenuation is defined as

  20log T dB for T  1  T 10 20

 If the output is greater than the input i.e. gain

A
A 20log T dB for T  1  T 10 20
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dB |T|, Gain |T|, Attenuation
0 1.0000 1.0000
1 1.1220 0.8913
2 1.2589 0.7943
3 1.4125 0.7079
4 1.5849 0.6310
5 1.7783 0.5623 NB: Each additional 6
dB of α reduces |T| by
6 1.9953 0.5012 half (each additional 6
12 3.9811 0.2512 dB of A doubles |T|).
18 7.9433 0.1259
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 Kinds of filters

 Filters are broadly classified according to the

functions they perform as pass band and stop band.
 An ideal pass band filter has |T| = 1 and α = 0
 An ideal stop band filter has |T| = 0 and α = ∞
 Filters are further classified as:
 Low-pass

 High-pass

 Band-pass

 Band-stop

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 1. Low-pass (LP) filter
Attenuation characteristic

α (dB)
α (dB)

Transition αmin
Pass Stop
αmax
0 ωp ωs 0 ω
ω
|T| characteristic
|T| Ideal filter |T|
1
Pass Stop

0 ω0 ω 0 ω
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 2. High-pass (HP) filter
Attenuation characteristic
α (dB)

α (dB)
αmin Transition
Stop Pass
αmax
0 ωs ωp ω 0 ω
|T| characteristic
|T| Ideal filter |T|
1
Stop Pass

0 ω0 ω 0 ω 16
 3. Band-pass (BP) filter
Attenuation characteristic

α (dB)
α (dB)

αmin αmin
Stop Pass Stop
αmax
0 ω 0 ω
|T| characteristic
|T| Ideal filter |T|
1
Stop Pass Stop

0 ω1 ω2 ω 0 ω
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 4. Band-stop (BS) or notch filter
Attenuation characteristic
α (dB)

α (dB)
αmin
Pass Stop Pass
αmax αmax
0 ω 0 ω
|T| characteristic
|T| Ideal filter |T|
1
Pass Stop Pass

0 ω1 ω2 ω 0 ω
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 For a pass band filter, the attenuation is always
less than αmax
 For a stop band filter, the attenuation is always
greater than αmin
 Frequency bands between stop and pass bands are
known as transition bands.

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 Types of filters
1. Passive – R, L, C
2. Active or analogue – op amps, R, C
3. Digital – adders, multipliers, shift registers, and
memory devices
4. Microwave – transmission frequency 200 MHz – 100
GHz
 Consist of distributed elements e.g. transmission
lines or waveguides
 Application – radar, space satellite communication
and telephone carrier systems
5. Electromechanical – use mechanical resonances to
accomplish the filtering of electrical signals
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