UNIT-2

Signal Analyzers

Part-I Part-II
 Wave analyzers. -> Signal Generators
 AF, HF/RF. AF, RF.
 Heterodyne
 Spectrum Analyzers. -> Sweep frequency generators.
 Power analyzers. -> Pulse and Square wave generators.
 Capacitance-voltage meters. -> Function generators.
 Oscillators. -> Arbitrary waveform generators.
-> video signal generators.
 Specifications for all Analyzers and generators.
Wave Analyzers
To analyze the quality of the waveform generated( like distortion ,
stability) wave analyzers were used.
Signal wave(same).
Amplitude of each single-frequency component is selected and analyzed.

1.Frequency Selective Wave Analyzer/AF wave analyzer.

. The wave analyzer, used for analyzing the signals are of AF range is called
frequency selective wave analyzer. AF range: 20Hz to 20 KHz.
. It measures the relative amplitudes of different frequency components in a
complex waveform. It works like a frequency selective voltmeter that tunes to
one signal's frequency and rejects all other signal components
. The block diagram of frequency selective wave analyzer is shown in below
figure.
•Input Attenuator − The AF signal, which is to be analyzed is applied to input
attenuator. If the signal amplitude is too large, then it can be attenuated by input
attenuator.
•Driver Amplifier − It amplifies the received signal whenever necessary.
•High Q-filter − It is used to select the desired frequency and reject unwanted
frequencies. It consists of two RC sections and two filter amplifiers & all these are
cascaded with each other. We can vary the capacitance values for changing the
range of frequencies in powers of 10. Similarly, we can vary the resistance values
in order to change the frequency within a selected range.
•Meter Range Attenuator − It gets the selected AF signal as an input & produces
an attenuated output, whenever required.
•Output Amplifier − It amplifies the selected AF signal if necessary.
•Output Buffer − It is used to provide the selected AF signal to output devices.
•Meter Circuit − It displays the reading of selected AF signal. We can choose the
meter reading in volt range or decibel range.
-> By varying R & C components values , tuning frequency
can be varied.
-> The operating frequency of this instruments is from 10KHz
to 18 MHz .
-> The block schematic of AF wave analyzer is given below.
-> Wave analyzer is used in Industrial applications .
ex; to suppress the sound & vibrations generated by machines.
so that noise level can be measured.
-> modified diagram of Frequency selective or AF wave
analyzer is given below.
High Frequency wave analyzer(HF)
used to analyze the signals of RF /HF range is called HF wave analyzer.
HF/RF Range:0-18MHz.
The following figure shows the block diagram.
•The RF signal, which is to be analyzed is applied to the input attenuator. If the
signal amplitude is too large, then it can be attenuated by input attenuator.
•Untuned amplifier amplifies the RF signal whenever necessary and it is applied to
first mixer.
•The frequency ranges of RF signal & output of Local oscillator are 0-18 MHz &
30-48 MHz respectively. So, first mixer produces an output, which has frequency
of 30 MHz. This is the difference of frequencies of the two signals that are applied
to it.
•IF amplifier amplifies the Intermediate Frequency (IF) signal, i.e. the output of
first mixer. The amplified IF signal is applied to second mixer.
•The frequencies of amplified IF signal & output of Crystal oscillator are same and
equal to 30MHz. So, the second mixer produces an output, which has frequency of
0 Hz. This is the difference of frequencies of the two signals that are applied to it.
•The cut off frequency of Active Low Pass Filter (LPF) is chosen as 1500 Hz.
Hence, this filter allows the output signal of second mixer.
•Meter Circuit displays the reading of RF signal. We can choose the meter reading
in volt range or decibel range.
Harmonic distortion Analyzer
• Distortion analyzer measures the total harmonic power present in the
test wave rather than the distortion caused by each component.
• The simplest method is to suppress the fundamental frequency by
means of a high pass filter whose cut off frequency is a little above the
fundamental frequency.
• This high pass allows only the harmonics to pass and the total
harmonic distortion can then be measured.
• This harmonic distortion analyzer is based on fundamental
suppression method of distortion measurement.
• It gives only total harmonic distortion(THD),not amplitude of
individual distortion components.
Heterodyne wave analyzer
• This instrument is used in the MHz range.
• Heterdyne= mixing.
• The input signal to be analyzed is heterodyned to a higher IF by an
internal local oscillator.
Applications of wave analyzers
1.in electronic measurements.
2. sound & vibrations analyzers of machines.
3. Harmonic distortion Analyzer.
spectrum analyzer

• The electronic instrument, used for analyzing waves in frequency

domain. Here, x-axis represents frequency and y-axis represents the
amplitude.
• Basically, it displays the energy distribution of a signal on its CRT
screen.
Types of Spectrum Analyzers.
two types.
• Filter Bank Spectrum Analyzer.
• Superheterodyne Spectrum Analyzer.
 1.Filter Bank Spectrum Analyzer

• Used for analyzing the signals are of AF range.

• Called real time spectrum analyzer because it shows (displays) any
variations in all input frequencies.
•It has a set of band pass filters and each one is designed for allowing a specific band
of frequencies. The output of each band pass filter is given to a corresponding
detector.

• All the detector outputs are connected to Electronic switch. This switch allows the
detector outputs sequentially to the vertical deflection plate of CRO. So, CRO displays
the frequency spectrum of AF signal on its CRT screen.

2.Superheterodyne Spectrum Analyzer

• Used for analyzing the signals are of RF range(10MHz-100MHZ) is

called superheterodyne spectrum analyzer.

• So, we can choose a particular spectrum analyzer based on the frequency range of
the signal that is to be analyzed.
Block diagram
working of superheterodyne spectrum analyzer.
•The RF signal, which is to be analyzed is applied to input attenuator. If the signal
amplitude is too large, then it can be attenuated by an input attenuator.
•Low Pass Filter (LPF) allows only the frequency components that are less than the
cut-off frequency.
•Mixer gets the inputs from Low pass filter and voltage tuned oscillator. It produces
an output, which is the difference of frequencies of the two signals that are applied to
it.
•IF amplifier amplifies the Intermediate Frequency (IF) signal, i.e. the output of
mixer. The amplified IF signal is applied to detector.

• The output of detector is given to vertical deflection plate of CRO. So, CRO
displays the frequency spectrum of RF signal on its CRT screen.
Power analyzer
• A power analyzer is an instrument that measures and
quantifies the rate of power flow in electrical systems.
• Power flow is expressed in Joules/second (J/s) or
kilowatt-per-hour (kW/h).
Applications.
1.Testing and verifying correct operation of motors.
2.Checking transformer efficiency.
3.Measuring the effect of neutral currents.
4.Verifying power-supply performance.
Capacitance-voltage meters or analyzers .

• Measures capacitance versus voltage or capacitance vs time

characteristics of semiconductor devices.
• used to analyze the doping profiles of semiconductor devices by the
obtained C–V graphs.
Oscillators
• An oscillator is a mechanical or electronic device that works on the
principles of oscillation: a periodic fluctuation between two things
based on changes in energy. Computers, clocks, watches, radios, and
metal detectors are among the many devices that use oscillators.
• Simply we can say it is a signal source used to observe the waveforms.
• Works with barkhausen criteria.
The loop gain must be unity, │Aβ │=1
The total phase shift ,<Aβ = 360° or 0 ° .
Considerations in choosing an oscillator.
1.Frequency range(1Hz-30 MHz), 2.Output voltage: must be sufficient.
3. Dial resolution & accuracy 4.frequency stability 5.Amplitude stability
6.Distortion: it is undesirable.
Signal Generators

• Signal generator is an electronic equipment that provides standard

test signals like sine wave, square wave, triangular wave and etc. It is
also called an oscillator, since it produces periodic signals.
• Two types: AF, RF signal generators.
• The signal generator, which produces the periodic signal having a
frequency of AF/RF range is called AF /RF signal generator. the
range of frequencies is few Hz to few MHz .
AF/RF Sine and Square Wave Generator
The AF signal generator, which generates either sine wave or square
wave in the range of audio/radio frequencies based on the requirement
> Sine wave is very widely used in electronic circuits.
block diagram
> The above block diagram consists of mainly two paths. Those are upper path and
lower path. Upper path is used to produce AF/RF sine wave and the lower path is used
to produce AF/RF square wave.
> Wien bridge oscillator will produce a sine wave in the range of audio frequencies.
Based on the requirement, we can connect the output of Wien bridge oscillator to either
upper path or lower path by a switch.
> The upper path consists of the blocks like sine wave amplifier and attenuator. If the
switch is used to connect the output of Wien bridge oscillator to upper path, it will
produce a desired AF sine wave at the output of upper path.
> The lower path consists of the following blocks: square wave shaper, square wave
amplifier, and attenuator. The square wave shaper converts the sine wave into a square
wave.
> If the switch is used to connect the output of Wien bridge oscillator to lower path,
then it will produce a desired AF square wave at the output of lower path. In this way,
the block diagram that we considered can be used to produce either AF sine wave or
AF square wave based on the requirement.
 Function Generator
• Function generator is a signal generator, which generates three or more
periodic waves. Consider the following block diagram of a Function
generator, which will produce periodic waves like triangular wave, square
wave and sine wave.
There are two current sources, namely upper current source and lower current source.
Which are regulated by the frequency-controlled voltage.

Triangular Wave
•The output voltage of an integrator increases linearly with respect to time for the period
during which integrator gets current from upper current source.
•The output voltage of an integrator decreases linearly with respect to time for the period
during which integrator gets current from lower current source.

Square Wave.

•One type of constant (higher) voltage at the output of voltage comparator multi vibrator
for the period during which the voltage comparator multi vibrator gets the positive slope of
the triangular wave.
•Another type of constant (lower) voltage at the output of voltage comparator multi
vibrator for the period during which the voltage comparator multi vibrator gets the
negative slope of the triangular wave.
The voltage comparator multi vibrator present in above block diagram will
produce a square wave. If the amplitude of the square wave that is produced
at the output of voltage comparator multi vibrator is not sufficient, then it can
be amplified to the required value by using a square wave amplifier.

Sine Wave.
The sine wave shaping circuit will produce a sine wave output from the
triangular input wave. Basically, this circuit consists of a diode resistance
network. If the amplitude of the sine wave produced at the output of sine wave
shaping circuit is insufficient, then it can be amplified to the required value by
using sine wave amplifier.
Square and Pulse Generator:-
• The fundamental difference between a pulse generator and a square
wave generator is in the duty cycle.
• Duty cycle=Ton/(Ton + Toff).or Duty cycle=Pulse width/Time period.
A square wave generator has a 50 % duty cycle.
A pulse wave generator has 25% to 75%.(Duty cycle varies in
between).
>The frequency range of the instrument is covered in seven decade steps
from 1 Hz to 10 MHz, with a linearly calibrated dial for continuous
adjustment on all ranges.
>Two independent outputs are available, a 50 Ω source that supplies pulses
with a rise and fall time of 5 ns at 5 V peak amplitude and a 600 Ω source
which supplies pulses with a rise and fall time of 70 ns at 30 V peak
amplitude
> The instrument can be operated as a free-running generator, or it can be
synchronized with external signals.
 The basic generating loop consists of the current sources, for charging
and discharging of the ramp capacitor,
>The upper current source supplies a constant current to the capacitor and
the capacitor voltage increases linearly. When the positive slope of the ramp
voltage reaches the upper limit set by the internal circuit components, the
Schmitt trigger changes state. The trigger circuit output becomes negative
and reverses the condition of the current switch.
>The capacitor discharges linearly, controlled by the lower current source.
When the negative ramp reaches a predetermined lower level, the Schmitt
trigger switches back to its original state.
 The entire process is then repeated. The ratio i 1/i2 determines the duty
cycle, and is controlled by symmetry control. The sum of i 1 and
i2 determines the frequency.
 >The size of the capacitor is selected by the multiplier switch.
The unit is powered by an internal supply that provides regulated voltages
for all stages of the instrument.
Sweep frequency generator
• A Sweep Frequency Generator is a special type of signal generator
which generates a sinusoidal output whose frequency is
automatically varied or swept between two selected frequencies.
• One com­plete cycle of the frequency variation is called a sweep.
• The rate at which the frequency is varied can be either linear or
logarithmic, depending upon the design of a particular instrument.
• The amplitude of the signal output is designed to remain constant
over the entire frequency range of the sweep.
• The frequency range of a sweep frequency generator usually extends
over three bands, 0.001 Hz-100 kHz (low frequency to audio), 100
kHz-1,500 MHz (RF range), and 1-200 GHz (microwave range).
A compensating circuit is provided between sweep voltage generator and VCO to provide linear relation ship.
Arbitrary waveform generator
• The Arbitrary waveform generator delivers signal fidelity at 2.7Gb/sec
To solve measurement challenges.
• It combines signal fidelity with high speed mixed signal simulation.
• Having powerful sequencing capability, GUI with flexible waveform editor.
• Used in semiconductor design based test industries.
• Provides direct external clock input which allows jittered , non jittered signals for
high speed data streem.
• Standard signals can be created very easily with higher speed . covers bandwidth
up to 2GHz.
Arbitrary Waveform Generator techniques
• Direct Digital Synthesis, DDS: This type of arbitrary waveform generator is based around
the DDS types of frequency synthesizer, and sometimes it may be referred to as an Arbitrary
Function Generator, AFG
•Variable-clock arbitrary waveform generator The variable clock arbitrary function
generator is the more flexible form of arbitrary waveform generator. These arbitrary
waveform generators are generally more flexible, although they do have some limitations
not possessed by the DDS versions. Sometimes these generators are referred to as just
arbitrary waveform generators, AWGs rather than arbitrary function generators.
• Combined arbitrary waveform generator This format of AWG combines both of the
other forms including the DDS and variable clock techniques. In this way the advantages
of both systems can be realized within a single item of test equipment.
Arbitrary waveform generator resolution and speed:
• Two of the main specifications for an arbitrary waveform generator are their resolution and also
the speed. These two parameters determine the precision with which the waveform can be
reproduced. They are governed by different elements within the arbitrary waveform generator
circuit.
Video signal generator
• A video signal generator is a type of signal generator which outputs
predetermined video and/or television oscillation waveforms, and other signals
used in the synchronization of television devices and to stimulate faults in, or aid
in parametric measurements of, television and video systems.