GS 530

Research Methods and

Statistics
The Research Process:
An Eight-Step Model
The Research Process: An Eight-Step
Model
• PHASE I DECIDING WHAT TO RESEARCH
• Step I – Formulating a research problem
• PHASE II PLANNING A RESEARCH STUDY
• Step II – Conceptualising a research design
• Step III – Constructing an instrument for data collection
• Step IV – Selecting a sample
• Step V – Writing a research proposal
• PHASE III CONDUCTING A RESEARCH STUDY
• Step VI – Collecting data
• Step VII – Processing and displaying data
• Step VIII – Writing a research report

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The Research Process: An Eight-Step
Model
• Expressed by Festingerand Katz, who in the foreword of their
book “Research Methods in Behavioral Sciences” say that,
• Although the basic logic of scientific methodology is the same
in all fields, its specific techniques and approaches will vary,
depending upon the subject matter.
• Therefore, the model developed here is generic in nature.
• can be applied to a number of disciplines in the sciences.
• For example, suppose you want to go out for a drive;
• Before you start, you must decide where you want to go and
then which route to take.
• If you know the route, you don't need to consult a street
directory.

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The Research Process: An Eight-Step
Model
• As with your drive, for a research journey, there are also 2
important decisions to make.
• First, is to decide what you want to find out about
• in other words, “what research questions you want to
find”.
• having decided upon you research question or research
problems, you then need to decide “how to go finding
their answers”.
• Second, is your research objectives.
• where your knowledge base of research methodology
plays a crucial role.

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The Research Journey
Phase Phase I Phase II Phase III

PLANNING
DECIDING UNDETAKING

Main Task HOW

WHAT COLECTING
(to gather evidence
(research questions (the required
to answer the
to answer?) information)
research questions)

Operational Steps /
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Research Journey

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The Research Journey Methods of
Consideration data
s & steps in Research Methods & Sampling processing Principles of
formulating a design tools of data theory and scientific
research functions collection designs Use of writing
problem computers &
statistics

Literatur
e review

Constructing
Conceptualis Processing
Formulating an Writing a Writing a
ing a Selecting a Collecting and
a research instrument research research
research sample data displaying
problem for data proposal report
design data
collection

Field test
Editing
of the
of the
Coding Conducti
research ng the
Study designs data
tool
study
Required
Developi
ng a
theoretical
Variables & Validity &
Contents of code knowledge
hypothesis: reliability of book
the research Required
definition & the research
proposal interdisciplin
typology tool
ary
knowledge
What How Conducting the study

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Operational Steps and Research
Methodology
Research design Considering
Selecting a Writing a
ethical issues research
sample in data
Selecting a study report
collection
design

Constructing
Conceptualis Processing
Formulating an Writing a Writing a
ing a Selecting a Collecting and
a research instrument research research
research sample data displaying
problem for data proposal report
design data
collection

Processing data
Review the Literature Selecting a method of Writing a
data collection research
proposal Displaying data
Formulating a research
problem Collecting data using
attitudinal scales

Identifying variables
Establishing the validity
& reliability of a research
Constructing hypotheses instrument

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Phase I: Deciding What to Research
• Step I: Formulating a research problem
• Formulating a research problem is the first and most
important step in the research process.
• A research problem identifies your destination: it should tell
you, your research supervisor what you intend to research.
• The more specific and clearer your research process is the
better it is – study design, measurement procedures,
sampling strategy and the style of writing of your dissertation
or report.
• It is extremely important to evaluate the research problem;
• in the light of the financial resources at your disposal.
• the time available.
• and your own and your supervisor’s expertise and
knowledge in the field of study.
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Phase I: Deciding What to Research
• Step I: Formulating a research problem
1) Independent Variable: is a factor or condition that is
intentionally changed by an investigator in an experiment.
For Example: The mass of the plane (number of paper clips
added).
2) Dependent Variable: is a factor or condition that might be
affected as a result of that change.
For Example: The distance the paper flew.
3) Controlled Variable: A variable that is not changed is called a
controlled variable.
For Example: The same plane was used; the same person
flew the plane, the plane was flown in the same area, etc.

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Phase I: Deciding What to Research
1. Two groups of students were tested to compare their speed working math
problems. Each group was given the same problem. One group used calculators
and the other group computed without calculators.
Independent Variables use of calculators
Dependent Variables speed working the math problems

Controlled Variables same problems

2. Students of different ages were given the same puzzle to assemble. The puzzle
assembly time was measured
Independent Variables age of student

puzzle assembly time

Dependent Variables
Controlled Variables same puzzle

3. A study was attempted to find if the length of the string in a string telephone
affected its sound clarity.
Independent Variables length of the string
Dependent Variablessound clarity
Controlled Variables
same string, same cups, same tautness in string, same people measuring clarity

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Phase II: Planning a Research Study
• Step II: Conceptualizing a research design
• Research involves systematic, controlled, valid and rigorous
exploration.
• It also involves identifying gaps in knowledge:
• verification of what is already known.
• and identification of past errors and limitations.
• For any investigation, the selection of an appropriate research
design is crucial; enabling you to arrive at valid findings,
comparisons and conclusions.
• A faulty design results in misleading findings for wasting human
and financial resources.
• When selecting a research design, it is important to ensure that;
• it is valid, workable and manageable.
• you must be able to justify your selection;
• and you should be aware of its strengths, weaknesses and
limitations.
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Phase II: Planning a Research Study
• Step III: Constructing an instrument for data collection
• Collecting information for your study is based on;
• a ‘research tool’.
• or a ‘research instrument’.
For Example; observation forms, interview schedules,
questionnaires, and interview guides.
• Construction of a research instrument is the first “practical step” in
carrying out a study. Construct a research instrument for data
collection.
• Methods of data collection for;
• qualitative and quantitative studies, and
• the process of developing a research instrument.

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Phase II: Planning a Research Study
• Step IV: Selecting a Sample
• The basic objective of any sampling design is to minimize, within
the limitation of cost.
• Gap between the values obtained from your sample and those
prevalent in the study population.
• 2 key aims of selecting a sampling is;
1) avoidance of bias in the selection of a sample;
2) the attainment of maximum precision for a given outlay of
resources.
• Sampling strategies are categories into 2 functions;
a) the strengths and weaknesses of particular sample;
b) the situations in which they can or cannot be applied.

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Phase II: Planning a Research Study
• Step V: Writing a Research Proposal
• Next step is to put everything together in a way that provides;
adequate information about your research study, from your
research supervisor and others.
• A research proposal must tell you, your research supervisor and
a reviewer the following information about your study:
• what you are proposing to do;
• how you plan to proceed;
• why you selected the proposed strategy.

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Phase II: Planning a Research Study
• Step V: Writing a Research Proposal
• a statement of the objectives of the study;
• a list of hypotheses, if you are testing any;
• the study design you are proposing to use;
• the setting for your study;
• the research instrument(s) you are planning to use;
• information on sample size and sampling design;
• information on data processing procedures;
• an outline of the proposed chapters for the report;
• the study’s problems and limitations; and
• the proposed time-frame.

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Phase III: Conducting a Research
Study
• Step VI: Collecting data
• Having formulated a research problem, developed a study
design, constructed a research instrument and selected a
sample
• Collect the data from which you will; “draw inferences” and
“conclusions” for your study.
• For Example:
• depending upon your plans, you might commence
interviews,
• mail out a questionnaire,
• conduct nominal / focus group discussions or make
observations,
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Phase III: Conducting a Research
Study
• Step VII: processing and displaying data
• Analyze the information, you collected largely depends upon
2 things:
1) Type of information (descriptive, quantitative, qualitative
or attitudinal);
2) Way, you want to communicate your findings to your
readers (i.e., newspaper, article, proceeding, lectures,
seminars).
• Case 1: If your study is purely descriptive,
• You can write your dissertation / report on the basis of
your field notes,
• manually analyze the contents of your notes (content
analysis),
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• use a computer program such as NUD*IST N6, NVivio or
Phase III: Conducting a Research
Study
• Step VII: processing and displaying data
• Case 2: If you want quantitative /qualitative analysis,
• it is also necessary to decide upon the type of analysis
required such as (i.e. frequency distribution, cross-
tabulations or
• other statistical procedures, such as regression analysis,
factor analysis and analysis of variance)

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Phase III: Conducting a Research
Study
• Step VIII: Writing a research report
• Writing the report is the last: most difficult step of the
research process.
• This report informs the world what you have done;
• what you have discovered and,
• what conclusions you have drawn from your findings.
• If you are clear about the whole process,
• you will also be clear about the way you want to write
your report.
• Your report should be written in an academic style.
• and be divided into different chapters and / or sections
based upon the main themes of your study.
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THANK YOU